Iyini Inqubo Efanele?

Inqubo elindelekile isiqinisekiso somthetho-sisekelo sokuthi uhulumeni ngeke unciphe noma yimuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kokuqala ngokulandela izinqubo ezilungile nezimisiwe zomthetho. Simiswe ezinzisweni zesihlanu nezeshumi nane, lesisimiso siqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni uthatha isinyathelo ngokomthetho, ngokusobala, futhi ngokuhlonipha amalungelo omuntu ngamunye. Kodwa inqubo efanele ayiwona umthetho owodwa; iyiqoqo lesivikelo esima isigaba ngasinye sesenzo sikahulumeni, kusukela ekunqanyulweni kwezimoto ukuya ekuqulweni kwecala.

Ukuze iqondakale ngokugcwele inqubo efanele, umuntu kumelwe abheke amagatsha ayo amabili ahlukene: inqubo efanelekile yokuhlukanisa nenqubo efanelekile engaphansi. Ngalinye lifeza injongo ehlukile kodwa lihlangene lakha itshe lomthetho-sisekelo waseMelika.

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanele igxila kanjani izenzo zikahulumeni. Ngaphambi kokuba umbuso uthathe ukuphila komuntu, inkululeko, noma impahla, kumele inikeze izinto ezithile ezivikelayo ezincane. Lezi zihlanganisa:

  • Notice - Umuntu kumelwe atshelwe ukuthi uhulumeni uhlose ukwenzani nokuthi kungani.
  • [ Ithuba lokuzwakala [ - Umuntu kumelwe abe nethuba elibalulekile lokuveza uhlangothi lwendaba, ngokuvamile lapho equlwa noma equlwa.
  • Umenzi wesinqumo ongakhethi – Umahluleli noma isikhulu asinakuba nesiphatho somuntu siqu emphumeleni.
  • Ilungelo lokunikeza ubufakazi futhi abize ofakazi [ - Umuntu anganikeza ubufakazi futhi aphikise ubufakazi bukahulumeni.
  • Ilungelo kummeli - Omongweni omningi, ukumelelwa komthetho kuyadingeka ukuze kuqinisekiswe inqubo elungile.

INkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. yanikeza ukuhlolwa kwanamuhla kwalezo zinqubo ezidingekayo ku- Mathews v. IEldridge [1997]. Izinkantolo zicabangela izici ezintathu: isithakazelo somuntu siqu esithintekile, ingozi yokuncishwa okunganembile ngaphansi kwezinqubo zamanje, kanye nesithakazelo sikahulumeni, kuhlanganise nezindleko zokuphathwa. Lendlela eguquguqukayo isho ukuthi inqubo efanelekile ayiyona inqubo eyodwa yenzuzo; okulungile ezinzuzo zenhlalakahleni kungase kuhlukane nalokho okudingekayo ekuqulweni kobugebengu.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Inqubo efanelekile engathi yini uhulumeni angayenza, kungakhathaliseki izinqubo ezisetshenziswayo. Ivikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni, ngisho noma uhulumeni elandela izinqubo eziphelele. Lamalungelo asekelwe emqondweni wenkululeko ngokwayo futhi awahlelwanga ngokucacile kuMthetho-sisekelo. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaveza inani lenkululeko evikelekile, kuhlanganise:

  • Ilungelo lokushada - Iqashelwe obergefell v. Hodges (2015]), eyayikholelwa ukuthi imibhangqwana efanayo exhunyiwe inelungelo eliyisisekelo lokushada.
  • Ilungelo lokukhulisa nokunakekela abantwana bakho [ - - Ukugcinwa Troxel v. Granville [2000], ukulinganisela ukuphazamisa kwezwe ezinqumweni zabazali.
  • [[QULT:0] Ilungelo lokufihla imfihlo [ - Ukuhlanganisa nelungelo lokusebenzisa ukuvimbela inzalo ([Griswold v.Connecticut[[[FL:3], 1965]) nokwenza izinqumo mayelana nokuzimela komzimba.
  • Ilungelo lokwenqaba ukwelashwa - Iqashelwe ku Shashington v.Harper (1990) kanye nezenzakalo zamuva ezihilela ukunakekela ukuphila.

Inqubo eyisisekelo eyisisekelo inye yezindawo eziphikisana kakhulu zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo ngoba ifuna abahluleli ukuba bachaze ukuthi isho ukuthini “inkululeko”. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ivumela izinkantolo ukuba zakhe amalungelo angatholakali embhalweni. Abaxhasi bathi kubalulekile ukuvikela abantu ezenzweni zomthetho ezingenabulungisa okungamelwe zifinyelelwe yimithetho yendalo kuphela.

Okwenza Ukuhlela Okufanele Kubaluleke Ngenkululeko Yabantu Ngabodwa

Inqubo ayiyona inqubo ecatshangelwayo engokomthetho; isivikelo esiyinhloko kuhulumeni ophanjwe ngokuphamba. ngaphandle kwayo, umbuso ungabopha, uthumbe noma uthumbe impahla ngaphandle kokuzwa, isaziso, noma ithuba lokuzivikela. Izizathu ezingokoqobo zokulondoloza inqubo efanele zisekelwe ekubusweni komthetho:

  • iveza izenzo zikahulumeni ezizenzisayo - Akukho sikhulu esingaphezu kwemithetho. Inqubo iphoqelela yonke izinhlangano nenkantolo ukulandela izinqubo ezingaguquguquki, ezaziwayo obala.
  • ivikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye [ – ngisho noma uhulumeni esebenza ngezinhloso ezinhle, inqubo efanele iqinisekisa ukuthi amalungelo omuntu omangalelwe noma othintekile ayahlonishwa.
  • Isho ukuqiniseka komphakathi [ - Abantu bathambekele kakhulu ekwamukeleni imiphumela engokomthetho uma bebona ukuthi isimiso silungile, sikhanya, futhi sinikeza wonke umuntu izwi.
  • inciphisa ubandlululo nokuxhashazwa [ – ngokufuna abenzi besinqumo abangakhethi namathuba okukhanga, inqubo efanele inciphisa ithonya lobandlululo, ukonakala, noma amaphutha.

Kuyintando yeningi, lezisivikelo yizona ezihlukanisa isimiso somthetho kwesobulula. Njengoba iNkantolo Ephakeme yasho ku- I-Att Anti-Fascist Committee yavapovale v. McGrath (1951), inqubo efanelekile “ingqikithi yaleyomithetho yomthetho echaza amandla kahulumeni okuthinta abantu ngabanye.”

Imisuka Engokomlando Yenqubo Efanele

Umqondo wokuthi uhulumeni kumelwe alandele izinqubo ezilungile uvela kudala, kodwa isimo sawo sanamuhla saqala emakhulwini eminyaka entuthuko engokomthetho yesiNgisi neyaseMelika.

IMagna Carta (1215)

Ukubonakaliswa kwakuqala okudumile kwenqubo efanelekile kubonakala esahlukweni 39 seMagna Carta, esayiniwe yiNkosi uJohn e-Runnymede. Yamemezela ukuthi akukho muntu okhululekile ongaboshwa, avinjelwe, noma athunjwe “ngaphandle kokwahlulela okungokomthetho kontanga yakhe noma ngomthetho wezwe.” Lenkulumo – – “umthetho wezwe” – waba ukhokho wenqubo efanele. Nakuba ekuqaleni iMagna Carta yayisebenza kuphela ezikhundleni, isimiso sayo esiyinhloko somthetho ngaphezu komphathi wezwe ekugcineni sasakazwa kuwo wonke umthetho wesiNgisi.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Abantu Nezincwadi Zamakoloni ZaseNgilandi

Ngemva kwamakhulu eminyaka empi phakathi kwePhalamende noMkhandlu, i - English Bill of Rights (1689) yagcizelela umqondo wokuthi inkosi yayingenakuyimisa imithetho noma yakha izinkantolo ezikhethekile ngaphandle kwesimiso esivamile. Abenzi bamakoloni baseMelika babenala masiko e - Atlantic. Imithetho kahulumeni yamakoloni yayivame ukuhlanganisa isiqinisekiso sokuthi abafuduki babeyojabulela amalungelo afanayo nalawo amaNgisi, kuhlanganise nesivikelo somthetho ovamile.

Izinqumo Zesihlanu Nezashumi Nane

Lapho uMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. ubhaliswa, wawungenayo inqubo eqondile engokomthetho. ISichibiyelo sesihlanu, esagunyazwa ngo-1791, sashintsha ukuthi: “Akekho umuntu... oyophucwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Kodwa ngenxa yokuthi iBill of Rights ekuqaleni yayisebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni, imibuso yayingazishaya indiva lezisivikelo. Igebe lahlala lide laze iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo sagunyazwa ngemva kweMpi Yombathi ngo-1868. Inqubo yayo efanelekile yandisa imfuneko efanayo kuhulumeni nohulumeni bendawo: “... futhi ngeke kuphuce noma yimuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.”

Phakathi nekhulu leminyaka elilandelayo, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasebenzisa inqubo efanelekile yeSichibiyelo seNkathi yeshumi nane ukukhipha isigaxa esiningi seSigqi samalungelo ezakhamuzi. Ngokwesibonelo, ilungelo lokululeka ([[[[FLT:]2]] Gideon v. Wainwright [[FLT:]], 1963]), ilungelo elimelene nokwethulwa kwezethule ([[FLT:]] ama-malloy v. Hogan, 1964, kanye nesokudla okuhlanga ([FLD:6]]).[FT] u-6] u-666, , nelungelo lokumelana nomthetho wonke ofanele inqubo.[FLT]

Indlela Inqubo Efanele Esebenza Ngayo

Inqubo efanelekile ayiyona imithetho eyodwa; ivumelana nezindlela ezihlukahlukene zokuqulwa kwecala.

Inqubo Efanele Emacaleni Ombango

Esandleni somphakathi – esihilela izingxabano phakathi kwamaqembu azimele noma phakathi komuntu nohulumeni ngempahla noma imali – inqubo efanelekile iyaqinisekisa:

  • Icala – Ummangalelwa kumelwe anikezwe ngokomthetho ngempoqo kanye nokukhononda, achaze ukumangalela nenkantolo lapho icala lizozwakala khona.
  • Ithuba lokuphendula [ - Ummangalelwa unesikhathi esimisiwe sokubhala impendulo futhi anikeze owabo umsuka wamaqiniso.
  • inikeza imvume engokomthetho [ - Yize iSichibiyelo sesithupha selungelo lokululeka lingasebenzi ezicaleni zomphakathi, izinkantolo ngokuvamile zivumela abameli ukuba baqashe abameli, futhi kwezinye izindaba ezingathi sína (njengokufa kwabazali), umbuso ungadingeka ukuba unikeze ummeli ngenqubo efanele.
  • I-difice - Zombili izinhlangothi zingashintshana ngezincwadi, zithathe, futhi ziqoqe ubufakazi ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala ukuze kugwenywe izimangaliso.
  • A ukuqulwa kobulungisa phambi komahluleli ongakhethi [ - Uma icala liqulwa, imicimbi kumelwe ithathwe ngaphandle kobandlululo.

Umfanekiso oyisihluthulelo yi-[[QL:0]Sniach v. Imali Yomkhaya. [1969]. UWisconsin wavumela isikweleti ukuba sikhokhele isikweleti phambi kwanoma isiphi isibambiso. INkantolo Ephakeme yathi lokhu kulahlwa kwahlulelwa kwanele kuphuca onecala impahla ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile ngoba kwakungekho thuba lokubekela inselele imali kuze kube ngemva kokuba kuthathwe imali.

Inqubo Efanele Ezicathulweni Zezigebengu

Ngoba amacala obugebengu angaphumela ekuboshweni – ekulahlekelweni kwenkululeko – ukuvikelwa okufanelekile kuphakeme kakhulu lapha. UMthetho-sisekelo uhlela amalungelo amaningi akhethekile asebenza ekumangalelweni kobugebengu, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yawachaza ngokuphandle. Isivikelo esibalulekile sihlanganisa:

  • Ilungelo lokuthula – Isichibiyeli sesihlanu sivikela abamangalelwa ekuphoqelelweni ukuba bafakazele ngokwabo. Amaphoyisa kumelwe anikeze imanda[ izixwayiso phambi kokuphenywa kwemvume (]MANDA v. Arizona, 1966]).
  • Ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala lomphakathi nosheshayo – ISiqediso seSithandathu sidinga ukulingwa okuvulekele umphakathi futhi kwenzeke ngaphandle kokulibala okungenangqondo.
  • Ilungelo kummeli - Kusukela Gedeon v. Wainright (1963), umbuso kumelwe unikeze ummeli kunoma imuphi ummangalelwa onecala elibhekene necala elibi. Kamuva izinqumo zandisa lokhu kukwenza ukuba ashiye ama-paleji athwele isigwebo sejele ([[FLT:]4]] Argurgenger v. Ham, 1972).
  • Ilungelo lokubhekana nofakazi - Abalweli bangahlanganisa-i-examine abantu abafakaza ngokumelene nabo ( Pointer v. Texas, 1965]).
  • [ Ilungelo lokubiza ofakazi futhi unikeze ukuzivikela [---Subpoena amandla aqinisekisa abamangalelwa ukuba balethe ubufakazi enkantolo.
  • Ukuvikelwa engozini ephindwe kabili nokuzilimaza - Akukho ongazanywa kabili ngenxa yecala elifanayo, futhi akekho ongaphoqelelwa ukuba alivume.

INkantolo Ephakeme yanikeza futhi inqubo yokuvikela izingane EGault (1967). Ngaphambi kwalokho, izinkantolo zentsha zingabopha intsha ngaphandle kwamacala angokomthetho, amacala, noma abameli. INkantolo yasekela ukuthi “iSichibiyelo seshumi Nane noma iBhili lamaLungelo akubantu abadala kuphela,” futhi yayala ukuba intsha exabana namahlongandlebe yamukele isaziso, iseluleko, ilungelo lokumelana namacala angokomthetho, kanye nelungelo lokumelana nomthetho womuntu siqu.

Inqubo Efanele Ezindlebeni Ezilawulayo

Izinhlangano zikahulumeni zenza izinqumo eziningi ezithinta abantu – zinqumela izinzuzo zezenhlalakahle, ziphuce ilayisense yokushayela, zikhiphe imoto engakhokhiwe, noma ziqede isisebenzi somphakathi. Inqubo efanelekile iyasebenza nalapha, kodwa izinqubo eziqondile ziyahluka. AmaMathes v. I-Eldridge [ ukulinganisela ukuhlola (okushiwo ngaphambili) kwathuthukiswa emongweni: umamsizi weNtlalo encikile wabekela inselele inzuzo ngaphandle kokuzwa ngaphambi komthetho. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi ukuzwa okusobala ngaphambi kwesinqumo akudingenzeki njalo uma inhlangano inikeza ezinye izikhungo, njengokuphawula okulotshiweyo, ithuba lokunikeza ubufakazi obulotshiweyo, nokulalela okugcwele ngemva kwesinqumo.

Noma kunjalo, izici eziyinhloko – ukuphawula, ithuba lokuveza indaba yakho, nomenzi wesinqumo ongakhethi – kuhlala kubalulekile kunoma yimuphi umsebenzi wokuphatha ongancisha umuntu isithakazelo esinenjongo noma impahla.

Izinselele Zesikhathi Esizayo

Izindlela eziningi nezinkinga zokwakha zisongela ukungakhethi nokwethembeka kwesimiso sobulungisa.

Ukuhluthulwa Kwamaningi Nokufakwa Kwemicu Eyingozi

Iningi lamacala obugebengu – angaphezu kuka-95% - awalokothi aye emacaleni. Bagcina ngokufaka isikhalazo. Nakuba ukunxusa kungadingeki ngokwemvelo, kungaqeda inqubo efanele. Abalweli bavame ukumangalela icala ngaphansi kosongo lwesigwebo eside kakhulu lapho kuqulwa, isenzakalo esibizwa ngokuthi “isigwebo sezenkantolo.” Lapho abameli bebhekene nokucinezelwa kwecala namandla alinganiselwe, abamangalelwa bangamukela ukusebenzelana ngaphandle kokuqonda ngokugcwele amalungelo abo noma ubufakazi obumelene nabo. Ilungelo lokugweba liba yize uma isimiso sokugweba singenacala uma labo abafuna umuntu ngempela.

Ukungameleli Okungokomthetho Okwanele

Isithembiso se- Gideon v. Wainwright asifezeki ngokugcwele. Amahhovisi amaningi avikela umphakathi athwala amakhulukhulu amacala ngummeli, ashiya isikhathi esincane sokuhlola, ukuxoxa nofakazi, noma ukuthatha amafayela. Umbiko ka-2014 we American Bar Association wathola ukuthi “izimiso zokuzivikela eziqinile kulo lonke izwe zisengozini.” Ngaphandle kweseluleko esifanelekile, abamangalelwa abanakuwafaka ngokuphumelelayo amalungelo abo afanele enqubweni, njengokuhlola okungavunyelwe umthetho noma ukunikeza ubufakazi obungagunyazi lutho.

Ama - Bias Nokucwasa Enkantolo

Ucwaningo lubonisa ukuthi izinhlanga nezigaba ezimbalwa zibhekene nokuphathwa ngokhahlo kuzo zonke izigaba zesimiso sobulungisa, kusukela ekumeni nasekufuneni ukugwetshwa. Ubandlululo oluphelele phakathi kwabashushisi, abahluleli, nabajaji lungathonya izinqumo ngezindlela eziphula isithembiso sobulungisa obulinganayo. Ngokwesibonelo, abamangalelwa abamnyama basengozini kakhulu yokuvalelwa ngaphambi kwezenkantolo, okwenza kube nzima ukulungiselela ukuvikela nokuqinisa amathuba okuqiniseka. Inqubo idinga abenzi besinqumo abangakhethi, kodwa ubandlululo lwesimiso lululaza lowo mgomo.

Imfundo Nezindaba Eziyimfihlo

Ubuchwepheshe obusha bunika uhulumeni amandla angenakulinganiswa okulandela abantu. INkantolo Ephakeme isiqalile ukuchaza kabusha inqubo efanele neSichibiyelo sesine sokubhekisa ukwaziswa kwe-amanani. Carpitant v. United States [2018]), iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi amaphoyisa adinga imvume yokuthola amarekhodi endawo e-cell, ngoba abantu balindele ngokunengqondo ukuba izinto zomuntu siqu zihambe. Kodwa ezinye izimpikiswano eziningi aziphenduli: ukuqashelwa kwemishwa, ukuqoqwa kokwaziswa okungokomthetho, futhi kwenziwa ngemithetho yeze-athonsi ye-omgalelo-mthetho.

Inqubo Yokuthuthwa Nokufaneleka Kwabantu

Izindaba zokuthuthwa ziwumphakathi kunokuba zibe yizigebengu, ngakho isivikelo somthetho-sisekelo esiningi asisebenzi ngokuzenzekelayo. Abantu abangaboshiwe bangavalelwa izinyanga eziningi ngaphandle kwesibopho, futhi abaqiniseki ukuthi ummeli okhokhelwa uhulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme iphethe ukuthi i-Ceaste Proce Claus ivikela bonke abantu e-United States, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi i-indawo yezakhamuzi, kodwa iqiniso elingokoqobo liwukuthi izinkantolo zokufuduka zibhekene nezinqabela ezinkulu kakhulu ezingaholela ekususweni okungalungile.

Isiphetho: Ukuvikela Inqubo Efanele

Inqubo efanelekile ayiwona umshini ozihlukanisayo. Ixhomeke kubahluleli abaqaphile, abameli abanekhono, izakhamuzi ezinolwazi, kanye namasiko ezombangazwe azisa inkululeko ngenxa yempumelelo. Isimiso sokuthi akekho umuntu ongasuswa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla engenazimiso ezilungile siseyisisekelo sesimiso sobulungisa. Kubafundi nabafundisi, ukuqonda inqubo efanele akuyona nje ithuluzi lokuqaphela ukuphucwa kwemfundo, ukulandisa, nokusekela isithembiso sikahulumeni oboshwe umthetho. Ukulwa okungokomlando okungalawuleki, kusukela eMagna Carta kuya ezinqumweni zeSinkantolo saseWarren Court, kubonisa ukuthi inqubo efanelekile kumelwe ivikelelwe ngaso sonke isikhathi, njengoba kuyithuluzi eliqinile lenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, bheka ukucubungula kolwazi lweze-Legal Institute yenqubo efanele, i-Oyez isehlakalo seMatews v. [[FLT:] [[FLT]], kanye ne Center yezentengo yobulungisa yemibiko yezinselele zenqubo efanele.[FLT]