Iqiniswe ngoJuly 9, 1868, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane soMthetho-sisekelo waseMelika mhlawumbe siyisilungisi esinemiphumela engcono kakhulu esake sanezelwa kumbhalo wokusungula. Salungisa ubudlelwane phakathi kukahulumeni wezwe nezifunda, buhlanganisa izimiso zesizwe, ukulingana, nokungalingani okuyisisekelo somthetho waseMelika. Nakuba uhambo lwaso lugcwele ukulwa, ukuchaza, nenkulumo enzima yezombangazwe, iSichibiyelo seshumi elinesine sihlala siyithuluzi eliyinhloko lokuvikela amalungelo abantu nokuqinisekisa ubulungisa obulinganayo ngaphansi komthetho. Lokhu kuhlola okubanzi indlela lenguquko efanelanisa ngayo isimiso somthetho namuhla.

Umlando Ogciniwe: Kungani Kwakudingeka ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane?

Imiphumela esheshayo yeMpi Yombango yashiya i-United States isesimweni senhlekelele enkulu. Nakuba iSichibiyelo seshumi nantathu sasibuqedile ubugqila ngo-1865, izifundazwe zaseNingizimu zasheshe zamisa "Imithetho Emnyama" eklanyelwe ukuvimbela kanzima inkululeko namalungelo ama-Afrika asanda kukhululwa. Lemithetho yabeka imingcele eqinile ekuthengeni impahla, ekuvumeni amalungelo esivumelwano, nasekuqhubeni, okwanelisa ngokuphumelelayo isimiso esigunyaziwe somsebenzi ophoqelelweyo kanye namalungelo aseduze.

Iphendula ngokuthi, iSishaya-Mkhandlu esilawulwa yiRepublican sadlulisa iSivumelwano samalungelo abantu sango-1866, esamemezela ukuthi bonke abantu abazalwe e-United States (abangawafuni amaMelika Omda) babeyizakhamuzi futhi babenelungelo lokulingana. UMongameli uAndrew Johnson wathatha isibopho sokuthatha lesi senzo, waphikisa ukuthi sidlulele ngokomthetho kahulumeni. Nakuba iSishaya-Mkhandlu sasiweqikathi ngokuphumelelayo, ukungabaza okuqhubekayo ngokuphathelene nezenzo zomthetho-mthetho-mthetho kanye nesimo sesikhashana somthetho - zenza abasebenzi bathathe isinyathelo. Bafuna ukubeka lezimiso ngokungenamkhawulo kwemimoya eshintshayo yezombangazwe ngokuzidlulisa ngokuqondile eMthethweni. Umphumela wawuwukuyinjongo yokulungisa amalungelo esizwe, isilinganiso sombuso, amandla, kanye nenjongo eqinile yenjongo enkulu yesizwe saseMelika.

Ukuwohloka kweSichibiyelo ngengxenye

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane sakhiwa izingxenye ezinhlanu ezihlukene, nakuba iCandelo 1 liqukethe amalungiselelo avame ukuhlaziywa futhi aqashelwa kabanzi. Ingxenye ngayinye yaklanywa ngokucophelela ukuze kuxazululwe ukwehluleka okuthile koMthetho - sisekelo wokuqala kanye nezinhlekelele ezisheshayo ze - Reconson.

Ingxenye 1: Ukuba isakhamuzi, Inqubo Efanele, Nesivikelo Esilinganayo

Ingxenye 1 iqukethe izigaba ezintathu eziyisisekelo ezakha umthetho wanamuhla womthetho - sisekelo. Ulimi lwawo lubanzi, lumema izizukulwane zabahluleli, abameli, nezakhamuzi ukuba zixoxe ngencazelo yalo eqondile.

Ukuba Izakhamuzi

Isinqumo sobuSakhama u-Claus sasibusa ngokuqondile iNkantolo Ephakeme DDred Scott v. Sandford [1857], esasiphethe ukuthi ama-Afrika angeke abe yizakhamuzi zase-United States. Isigebengu esimisa umthetho ocacile, ofanayo:[
[[FLT]] [[FLT]]] bonke abantu abazelwe noma abadalwe ngokwemvelo e-United States, futhi bangaphansi kwegunyazwe labo, bayizakhamuzi zase-United States nasezweni elihlala kulo.[[[3][FLT][FLT] [isimond:] lelilungiselelo elisungulwe yi-ingini yesizwe ne-Melikannoniat . [4] Isimiso sombuso wesizwe esibanzi sangaphandle salomthetho womthetho-mthetho womthetho wezwe lonke.[4][4]

Inqubo KaClaus Elindelekile

I-System Claus yenqabela ukuncishwa "noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho." Lamazwi abonakala elula anezincazelo ezimbili ezihlukene nezinamandla.

Inqubo elindelekile elindelekile ifuna uhulumeni ukuba alandele izinqubo ezilungile nezimisiwe ngaphambi kokuba asuse ukuphila komuntu, inkululeko, noma impahla. Lokhu kusho ukuthi abantu banelungelo lokuqaphela isenzo sikahulumeni esizayo, ithuba lokuzwakala, ukuqulwa ngokulunga phambi kwenkantolo engakhethi, nelungelo lokunikeza ubufakazi. Isibonelo, ngaphambi kokuba umbuso ucishe amalungelo omzali, ukhiphe imvume yokuvala inyumba yomphakathi, noma uvale ilayisense, kumelwe inikeze iziphephelo ezanele. Izimfuneko eziqondile zihlukahluka ngokusekelwe esimweni senzalo esiphakalweni nasengozini yokungamukeleki.

Inqubo yokuTshabalalisa i- iyimfundiso ephikisana kakhulu. Isho ukuthi amalungelo athile ayisisekelo asekelwe kakhulu emlandweni wesizwe namasiko enkululeko kangangokuthi uhulumeni akanakuwaphula, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi inqubo ilungile kangakanani. Lenqubo isetshenziswe yiNkantolo Ephakeme ukushaya imithetho ephazamisa ngokuthanda komuntu siqu, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokushada, ilungelo lokusebenzisa ukuvimbela inzalo, kanye nelungelo lokuphakamisa izingane zakhe. Ukusebenza kweBhili lamaLungelo emazweni, eyaziwa njengemfundiso ehlangene, futhi isekelwe eMthethweni we-Claussmustion ye-149, njengoba ivikela "intelli" eyisisekelo se-'i-Reveced Rendecle".

Isivikelo SikaClaus Esilinganayo

Mhlawumbe ithuluzi elinamandla kakhulu lobulungisa bezenhlalo, i-Umeal Protection Claus iyala ukuba kungabikho mbuso ozothi "umela noma ubani ongaphansi kwawo ukuvikelwa okufanayo kwemithetho." Kuwumthetho - sisekelo wesithembiso sokuthi umthetho kumelwe uphathe bonke abantu ngendlela efanayo nokuthi uhulumeni awunakukwazi ukudweba imigqa ehlukanisa abantu emaqenjini ngenxa yokuphathwa ngokungafani.

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasungula isimiso esinezinhlu zokuhlola ukuze kuhlolwe imithetho ebekelwe i - Acimeal Protection Claus:

  • Strict Scrutiny: Isebenziselwe ukuhlelwa okusekelwe ngokohlanga, emsuka wesizwe, noma amalungelo ayisisekelo. Ngaphansi kwalendinganiso, umthetho ucatshangelwa ukuthi awuvumelani nemithetho ngaphandle kokuba uhulumeni angafakazela ukuthi ihlelwe ngokulinganiselwe ukuba ikhonze isithakazelo sikahulumeni esiphoqelelwe. Lendinganiso yavela ezindaweni ezinjenge brown v. Board of Education [1954])] kanye [FLT:] kanye [FLT] v. Virginia[FLT]
  • Indinganiso yamiswa ku-Curmedig Scrutiny: Ihloselwe ukuhlelwa okusekelwe ebulilini noma ekwahluleleni. Umthetho kumelwe uhlobane kakhulu nesithakazelo sikahulumeni esibalulekile. Lendinganiso yamiswa ku Craig v. Boren [797][6] futhi kamuva wasetshenziswa ku [ United States v. Virginia [196], eyahlasela umthetho we-owesilisayo wesilisa eVirginia.
  • Ratical Basis Review: Ibhekiswe kuzo zonke ezinye izigaba (umzk., imithetho yezomnotho, ubudala, ukukhubazeka). Umthetho uthathwa njengomthetho-sisekelo futhi uzosekelwa uma uhlobene nengqondo nesithakazelo esingokomthetho sikahulumeni. Lokhu kuyindinganiso ehloniphekayo kakhulu, futhi imithetho eminingi iyaqhubeka ibukezwa ngokunengqondo.

I - Acimial Protection Claus ekuqaleni yayihloselwe ukuvikela izigqila ezisanda kukhululwa, kodwa umbhalo wayo (anoma ubani) uye wavumela ukuba uphendukele ukuze uvikele abantu abaningi kakhulu ekuthatheni isinyathelo sobandlululo kuhulumeni.

Ingxenye 2-5: Ukuphazanyiswa, ukudideka, isikweleti, nokuphoqelelwa

Nakuba iSigaba 1 sibusa inkulumo yeningi, izingxenye ezisele zeSichibiyelo Se - 14 zikhuluma ngokwakhiwa nokukhunjulwa kwezici zokwakha kabusha.

Ukuhlukanisa 2 kukhuluma ngokuhlukaniswa kwabameleli eKhongoloni. Yazama ukujezisa izifundazwe eziphika ilungelo lokuvota izakhamuzi ezikhulile zabesilisa ngokunciphisa isilinganiso sazo. Nakuba lelilungiselelo lingazange liphoqelelwe ngokululaza ngokuphumelela ngokuncishiswa kokumelelwa, iqokomisa inhloso yabaFramers yokuthola amalungelo okuvota nokuhlanganisa amandla ezombangazwe ekuhlanganiseni umphakathi.

Ukuqamba 3 kwenqabela noma yimuphi umuntu oye wafunga ukusekela uMthetho-sisekelo futhi wangenela ekuvukeleni noma ekuvukeleni ekuthatheni isikhundla somphakathi noma sobuso. Lengxenye, kakhulu kunayo iminyaka engaphezu kwekhulu, yaphinde yafaka ukuqashelwa kwesizwe ngemva kwe-January 6, 2021, ukuhlasela e-U.S. Capitol. Iye yasetshenziswa ezinkantolo nasemicikilisweni yombuso ukuze ingenza izikhulu ezithile zingakufanelekeli ukuphatha isikhundla sazo ngokuhileleka kwazo empikiswaneni yesikhathi esizayo, ibangela ukuba kube nempikiswano eqinile ngokomthetho ngesilinganiso sayo nangokugcinwa kwayo.

Ukuhlanganisa 4 kwaqinisekisa ukufaneleka kwesikweletu sesizwe sase-U.S. futhi kwalahla ngokucacile izikweletu ze-Confederacy, kuvimbela ababengabaphathi bezigqila nomthetho wezwe ekufuneni imbuyiselo ngokulahlekelwa kwabo "ukungalungi" ngokuvukela noma ngokuhlukumeza izigqila.

Ukuhlanganisa 5 kunikeza uMkhandlu amandla okuphoqelela amalungiselelo okulungisa ngomthetho ofanele. Lengxenye yakha isisekelo somthetho ngokomthetho semithetho ephawula amalungelo abantu, kuhlanganise neSivumelo samaLungelo sika-1964 kanye neSivumelo samaLungelo sika-1965. Izinga lamandla oMkhandlu ngaphansi kweSigaba 5 liye laba yisihloko seNkanto ebalulekile yeNkantolo Ephakeme ehlaziyilweyo, nezinkantolo ezivimbela ikhono leNkathi Yomthetho lokwandisa amalungelo ngaphezu kwalelo iJaji elichazwe ngaphansi kweSigaxa 1.

Imfundiso Yokuvumelana: Ukusebenzisa Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Abantu E - United States

Ekuqaleni, iBill of Rights (izinguquko zokuqala eziyishumi) zasebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni kuphela. Barron v. Baltimore [1833], uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall wakholelwa ukuthi lezi zinguquko azizange zicindezele ohulumeni bezwe. ISiphendu seshumi elinesine sabuguqula kakhulu lobu buhlobo ngokusungula umqondo wokuba nesizwe nesivikelo sikahulumeni ekuphathweni yizwe.

Ngenqubo eyaziwa ngokuthi ekhethayo, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yasebenzisa i-The Bit Procession Claus eSichibiyelo seshumi nane ukuze isebenzise amalungiselelo amaningi eSiphakamiso Samalungelo emibuso. INkantolo iye yacabanga ukuthi amalungelo abhekwa njengayisisekelo emphakathini wentando yeningi noma agxile ngokujulile emqondweni wesizwe wenkululeko egunyaziwe aqinisekiswa ngokuphelele "imvume" evikelwe iSichibiyelo seshumi Nane.

Izenzakalo eziyinhloko ezihlanganisa ukufakwa:

  • Gitlow v. New York (1925): Yasebenzisa iziphetho zenkululeko yokukhuluma ezizweni.
  • [FLT]] Mapp v.Oo (1961): Wasebenzisa umthetho weSichibiyelo sesine, okusho ubufakazi obutholakele ngokungemthetho obungasetshenziswa enkantolo yezwe.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Wasebenzisa ilungelo leSiphakamiso seSithandathu sokunikeza iseluleko, ifuna ukuba kunikezwe abameli abamangalelwa abangakwazi ukuthenga.
  • Mira v. Arizona (1966): Wasebenzisa ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu ngokumelene nokuziphikisa ngokomongo wophenyo lwamaphoyisa, emisa imfuneko yezixwayiso ze "Miranda".
  • [FLT]McDonald v. Chicago [2010] : Wasebenzisa ilungelo lesibili leSichibiyeli sokugcina nokuthwala izikhali zokuzifaka ngokumelene nombuso kanye nohulumeni bendawo.

Cishe namuhla, zonke izivikelo zeBhili Lamalungelo ziye zafakwa ngokumelene nezifundazwe, lokhu kwenza iSichibiyelo se - 14 sibe imoto eyinhloko yokuqinisa amalungelo omthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni esilinganisweni sombuso nesezwe, ngokuyisisekelo kushintshe ukulinganisela kwamandla esimisweni sikahulumeni waseMelika.

Izimpi Zanamuhla Nezimpi Eziphakeme

Incazelo yeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane iyaqhubeka iphikiswa kanzima ekhulwini lama - 21, ibangela ezinye zezimpikiswano ezihlukanisa kakhulu ezingokomthetho nezezombangazwe emphakathini waseMelika.

Isenzo Esiqinisayo

Emashumini eminyaka, i-Uncimence Protection Claus yayiyindawo ephakathi yokulwa yokuvuma izinqubo. INkantolo Ephakeme yayilokhu ikholelwa njalo ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga, ngisho nalokho okuhloselwe ukuxazulula ukucwaswa kobandlululo kwangesikhathi esidlule, kumelwe kuqhubeke kuhlolwa ngokunembe. Iziqu ze-Fair Adgigistrations, Inc. v. umongameli noMphathi we-Harvard Collegence [[FLL] [20023] [2023] [iNkantolo ehloselwe ukuvala izinhlelo zohlanga ngokunganaki ezingokwemfundo ephakeme. INkantolo yakholelwa ukuthi izinhlelo ezinjalo ziwuphula i-Fair Active Provicessssssss, intelligicsssssssssssss ongenakulinganisekisekayolike kakhulu futhi incike kakhulu kwezinhlanga. Lokhu kumelela ukunquma kwe-Geneticpywo-1914491)

Ukusakaza Amalungelo

Imidlalo ephakathi kweSichibiyelo seMithetho yeshumi nanhlanu neshumi nanhlanu ibalulekile ezicaleni zokuvota. Shelby County v. Holer [2013], iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhipha ilungiselelo eliyinhloko leSivumelo somthetho weSigunya sombuso we-Voting Rights ka-1965 owafuna izifunda ezithile ezingokomlando wobandlululo lwesizwe ukuze zithole ukuhlelwa kwemithetho yazo yokuvota. Inkantolo yathi inqubo yokukhomba eyayisetshenziselwa ukunquma ukuthi iziphi izigaba zaziphelelwe isikhathi futhi yaphula izimiso zobukhosi obulinganayo obuvezwa yiSimende se-14. Lesi sinqumo siye saholela ekutheni kube nomlando wokukhetha okusha nokuvimbela ukuvota kanye nesithiwa kwemithetho evimbela i-emeearlence kulo lonke izwe, yaphikisa nge-Exlaus.

Ukuba Izakhamuzi Ngokufanele Nokuthuthela Kwelinye Izwe

I-sazeclaus isiyindawo egxile empikiswaneni yesizwe yenkambiso yokufuduka. Ezinye izazi zezombangazwe nezomthetho ziye zaphikisa ngokuthi ubuzibulo abunakusebenza kubantwana abafudukayo abangabhalwanga. Nokho, ukuvumelana okusemthethweni okukhona, okusekelwa ngombhalo ocacile we-mendement ("futhi ukulawulwa kwayo") kanye nesibonelo esibekwe [kuyi- United States v. Wong Kim Ark [1898], kuwukuthi cishe zonke izingane ezizalelwe e-U.S. inhlabathi iyizakhamuzi. Ngokulinganiselwe ibekelwe labo abangalawulwa ngokuphelele. umbuso wezwe.S., njengabantwana besitha esitha phakathi nesikhathi sempi noma uhulumeni wezwe.

Inqubo Eyinhloko Efanele Nokukhishwa Kwesisu

Ilungelo lokukhipha isisu, ngaphambili latholwa livikelwe yiSichibiyelo seNdlela yeSikhawulo se 14 ne-Claus Roe v. Wade [1773] ne. Icala eliphakeme [ [1992], labuswa [[FLT] [i-Reat] [i-regod] [i-Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [[FLT:] [202]] [202]). INkantolo Ephakeme yayikholelwa ukuthi ilungelo lokukhipha isisu ayisekelwe kakhulu emlandweni wesizwe noma isiko futhi ayifaneleki njenge-" "isiko lokulunga ephansi" ngaphansi kwe-145. Lesi sinqumo sibuyisela isimiso sokukhishwa kwezisu, iminyaka engu-50 cishe, futhi i-presethi yenkulumo yesizwe.

LGBTQ+ Amalungelo Nokulingana Komshado

Isivikelo Esilinganayo neSinyathelo sika-Celas u-Claus useke wandisa i-LGBTQ+ amalungelo. fell v. Hodges [2015], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi iSivumelwano seMicimbi ye-14th siqinisekisa imibhangqwana efanayo yelungelo eliyisisekelo lokushada. INkantolo yasebenzisa kokubili i-Sect Programme Claus (ukuvikela inkululeko yokushada) ne-Clauslaus (ukuvikela ukuvikela ukucwaswa okulinganayo kwemibhangqwana engaphezulu) ne-expression (ukucwaswa kwezimiso ze-expression). Muva nje, [FLT:] Bhosze. Comporty [v] [FLT] [20], iNkathi yeNkakhulu leNkathi ye-Cevidual Act Act, noma i-Greageadditionssssssting, i-ogneyworking, ikakhulukazi ngokuphatheleneywolustra

Ifa Elihlala Njalo LeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane sakha itshe eliqinile lamalungelo omphakathi anamuhla nenkululeko eUnited States. Liyincwadi yomthetho-sisekelo esetshenziswa kakhulu ekumangaleleni ezinkantolo ezibekela inselele isinyathelo sikahulumeni esisesifundazweni nasemphakathini. Izigaba zayo ziye zasetshenziselwa ukususa izikole ezikhuculula, ukuvikela amalungelo okuvota, ukuqinisekisa ukuqulwa okungakhethi, ukuvikela imfihlo yomuntu siqu, nokwandisa ukulingana komshado. Izinqolobane zeZibonelo zesizwe zilondoloza isinqumo sokuqala esihlongozwayo [[[[[FLTL:1]] njengesikhumbuzo sezithembiso ezinkulu ezenziwe phakathi no-Reconstantion kanye nomzabalazo othatha isikhathi eside ukuzifeza.

Incazelo yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane ayiyona into eqhubekayo. Impi eqhubekayo phakathi kobu qobo, nombono wokuthi ukulungisa kufanele kuchazwe ngokwencazelo yomphakathi yasekuqaleni ngesikhathi sokukhuliswa kwayo, kanye nombono ophilayo womthetho-sisekelo, okuthi amagama awo abanzi afana no "liberty" ne"sivikelo esilinganayo" kumelwe iguquke ukuze ihlangabezane nezimo ezintsha zezenhlalo, kuqhubeke ukuhlela i-judicariary ne-American zombangazwe. Ukuze inyukele kakhulu ezindinganisweni ezingokomthetho ezakheke ngaphansi kwesigaba, [[FLT:] i-Cornell Information Institute ebanzi yeze-'FLT].

Kusukela endabeni evelele ye Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo ukuya emshadweni olinganayo obusayo obergefell v. Hodges, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo siye saba imoto yenguquko ejulile kakhulu engokomthetho yesizwe. Njengoba i-United States iqhubeka ihlukahlukahluka futhi iyinkimbinkimbi, iSichibiyelo seshumi elinesine siyo siyosala phakathi komzamo oqhubekayo wokwakha [[FLT:]4] ephelele"[FLT] Union ngokuqinisekisa ukuthi izithembiso zenkululeko nokulingana zisebenza ngaphansi kwesigaba sayo sonke.