Ukwehlukana Okuyingqopha - mlando: Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo NoMbuso

Umthetho-sisekelo we-United States, njengoba wawubhalwe ekuqaleni, wamisa uhulumeni kahulumeni wamagunya ahlelwayo. I-Bill of Rights . ."enziwa inguquko yokuqala eyishumi − ngokushesha ngemva kwalokho ukubeka imingcele ecacile kulelogunya likahulumeni. Cishe ikhulu leminyaka, lezisivikelo azizange zisebenze kuhulumeni. Isakhamuzi esisikhulu esikhululwe inkululeko yesivumelwano sikahulumeni sasingenayo imvume ngaphansi kweSiphendulo Sokuqala. Lesimiso esimbaxambili samalungelo sashiya abantu besengozini yokuphazanyiswa, igebe elingenakunikezwa ngokugcwele kuze kube yilapho i-Gawula i-49th Reformation nentuthuko elandelayo ye yeSishayamthetho. [FLT:]

Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ngo-1833 saqinisa lokhu kulinganiselwa. UJohn Barron wayenendawo yokuthutha eBaltimore eyayingasebenzi lapho idolobha liphambuka phakathi nokwakhiwa komgwaqo. Wamangalela, ephikisa idolobha ngokuthatha impahla yakhe ngaphandle kokukhokha, ephula iSichibiyelo sesihlanu. UJaji omkhulu uJohn Marshall, ebhala iNkantolo ehlangene, wakholelwa ukuthi iBill of Rights isebenza kuhulumeni womphakathi kuphela, hhayi ezifundazweni. Isinqumo sashiya abani bempahla futhi, ngokwengxenye, zonke izakhamuzi zazingamele ukuthatha isinyathelo ngaphandle kwesivikelo, zibhalwe emashumini eminyaka esinqumo, ukukhipha izigwebo zemithetho engokomthetho. Lokhu kwathatha amashumi amaningi eminyaka ukuhlanganisa ukuhlanganiswa kwemithetho engokomthetho wezwe.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane: Inkathi Yenguquko

Ngemva kweMpi Yangaphakathi, uMkhandlu wahlongoza iSichibiyelo seshumi nane ukuqinisekisa ukuthi imibuso eyayiyizigqila ngeke iphuce abantu amalungelo ayo ayisisekelo. Ukubekwa kwayo ngo-1868 kwasungula isilinganiso esisha kumandla kahulumeni. Ingxenye yokuqala yamemezela ukuthi akukho zwe “lizoqeda noma imuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho; noma ukuphika noma yimuphi umuntu onegunya layo ukuvikelwa okulinganayo kwemithetho.” Ulimi lwe-Calse Procession [ u-Bacodential projected Class waba yimoto eyinhloko uBill of Rights ayisebenzisa ngayo kamuva.

Kodwa amandla agcwele eSichibiyelo seshumi nane leminyaka awazange atholakale ngokushesha. IMacase-Indlu (1873] [iNkantolo Ephakeme] yalinganisela kakhulu ubukhulu becala [ u-Privigeges noma ama-Immunion Claus [, ibambe ukuthi ivikele amalungelo afanele ukuba khona kwawo kuhulumeni wezwe (i-ancane). Lendlela ivala umnyango ukudluliswa ngeminyaka ecishe ibe ngu- 150, kuze kube ukuvuselelwa kwe-'FLT]. [FLT] [FLD] [FF:]] [FFF5] [5]] [0], kodwa yaphendulela i-Cuble Courtsments Troupt (icences) njengendlela engcono yomthetho efuna ukuviviniwe-ijeza i-eqedious (iember).[Fog.[6]

Inkomba ekhethayo vs. Ingqikithi I-Icorporation

Kwavela izinkolelo-mbono ezimbili eziphikisanayo ekuqaleni kwekhulu lamashumi amabili leminyaka. IJaji uHugo Brandeis futhi kamuva uMahluleli uWilliam Brennan wasekela “ingxenye ephelele” - umqondo wokuthi i-Unit Procession Claus kufanele isebenzise wonke umbono weSigqizo samalungelo ezweni, ngokuthatha isinyathelo esisodwa. UMahluleli uLouis Brandeis kanye nabanye, nokho, wasekela indlela yokuzivumelanisa, waphikisa ngokuthi lawomalungelo abhekwa ukuthi“ asekelwe eqenjinini lokwahlulela kwaseMelika” kufanele afakwe. INkantolo yamukela umbono wamuva, ihlola ilungelo ngalinye ukuze kuhlolwe ukuthi libalulekile yini ekukhululeni nasebulungiseni.

Ngaphansi ekhetha ukuhlanganiswa , iNkantolo ibuza: Ingabe lelilungelo “liyikho emqondweni wenkululeko emisiwe”? Uma ihlanganiswe nge-Century Programme Claus futhi isebenza ezizweni. Uma kunjalo, isokudla silokhu siyisithiyo sikahulumeni kuphela. Lendlela ivumela iNkantolo ukuba ivumelane nesivikelo somthetho-mfantu ekushintsheni izimo, kodwa iye yacela ukugxekwa ngezihloko zayo kanye nokuguquguquka kwayo.

Izenzakalo Eziwuphawu Lwezwe Ekukhetheni Okukhethekile

Isichibiyelo Sokuqala: Inkululeko Yokukhuluma Nezindaba

[F3] [F3] ku-Forn, [Fose] ku-Gene] u-Gitlow v. New York (1925). uBenjamin Gitlow waboshwa ngaphansi komthetho wobugebengu waseNew York wokukhipha iSiphakamiso sobusosha. Waphikisa umthetho weSichibiyelo sakhe sokuQala sokukhulula ukukhuluma - lungelo, ngesikhathi, wasebenzisa ngokuqondile eSivumelwaneni. Inkantolo yacabanga ukuthi “inkululeko yokukhuluma neyokunyathelisa okuvikelwe yiSichibiyelo sokuqala sokukhishwa kweSiphakamiso somthetho sombuso, iphakathi kwamalungelo abalulekile awesikhokhwakhwa muntu siqu nenqubo evikelwe ngenqubo efanelekile yenguquko engu-14nicrease encindimu enciswe yi-Exten.[4] [FoglyFodtions] [ense] kuhulumeni wokuqala, [evolution:] [12] ku-Fodwa kweyession:[3] [12]

ISichibiyelo Sesine: Ukucwaninga Nokukhohlisa Okungenangqondo

ISichibiyelo sesine sivikela ekuphenyeni okungacabangeli nokuquleka futhi sidinga izimvume ezisekelwe emzamweni olindelekile. Wolf v. Colorado (1949), iNkantolo yahlanganisa ilungelo lokukhululeka ekuphenyeni okungenangqondo, kodwa ngokuphawulekayo ayizange ifake umthetho wokuzihlukanisa, ophethe ubufakazi obuthola ngokungemthetho obungavunyelwe ecaleni. Lokhu kwakha umsebenzi lapho abantu bengaseshwa khona ngaphandle komthetho owephula umthetho kodwa bengenakubuvimbela ubufakazi obungakho enkantolo. Inkantolo ishintshe indlela yokukhululeka [[FLT:]] V.[2][FLT] [FG:] [196]) ngokuyisisekelo imvume yokuvuselela imvume yokulawula. [FT] I-Frep ibilokhu ifaka imvume yokukhomba amaphutha ngemva kwemithetho.[5] Inkantolo iyakuvala imvume yomthetho egunyaza imvume yomthetho.[Fodrumption:1]

ISichibiyelo Sesihlanu: Ukuziphikisa Nokuzifaka Engcupheni Kabili

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu sihlanganisa isivikelo sokuzihlukanisa, izingozi eziphindwe kabili, nelungelo lokukhipha izikhalo eziphezulu. I-application edume kakhulu yenzeka ku . UMendanda v. i-Arizona[ [[6], eyasebenzisa i-incrimediation-informations kumazwe futhi yamisa izixwayiso ze-Mirda. kodwa izingozi eziphindwe kabili zafakwa ekuqaleni Ben v. [Maryland[FLT:] [[3]] [6] [6], engayisebenzisi i-payiniwe i-parse qhinga elide [[FLT:], njengoba ingenakukhokelwa yi-phane.[5]

ISichibiyelo Sesithupha: Izivikelo Zokuqulwa Kwecala Ezifanele

Izindaba ezimbalwa zifana nokufakwa kwe-conometion njenge [[FF: 0] u-Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). U-Clarence Earl Gideon wamangalelwa ngokugqekeza ihholo letheku eFlorida. Ukungakwazi ukunikeza ummeli, wacela icebo elilodwa, kodwa umthetho wase Florida wanikeza iseluleko senhlokomo yecala kuphela. [FFF:] [FF3] [F],[10] [F],[11] futhi wathola isiqinisekiso sokunxenxanxanxanxanxanxanxanye yecala lakhe eSigodlweni esiPhakameleni esikhulu, waphikisa iSiphaka sokulunga sakhe sokubusa.[Fom][10][ekhensi] inqubo esemthethweni (enye).[FFonke) elungiselelweni elingumphakathini lomphakathi womphakathi we-uni.[F.[Fonke).[ense iNquanse : "ice k][embuquase, iNst][ense][ense,

ISichibiyelo Sesibili: Ilungelo Lokugcina Nokuthwala Izikhali

Emashumini eminyaka, iSichibiyelo Sesibili asizange sifakwe ngoba iNkantolo yayinganqumanga ukuthi ivikela umuntu ngamunye ilungelo lokuzimela ngaphandle kwenkonzo yobusosha. Okwashintsha kuyi-Dialium of Columbia v. Heller [2008] [[FLT]] [2008], eyayithi iSichibiyelo Sesibili sivikela ilungelo lomuntu “lokuba nenkululeko yenkululeko yegazi futhi isebenzise isimo sohulumeni phakathi kwe-Calporacce. [[FLT:]] [[FLT]] [income] [[FLT]] v.[20:] [2003]] [20]]), iNkantolo yecala lithi ilungelo lokuvikela ilungelo lokuzikhulula inkululeko” futhi lisebenzise isimo sombuso wezwe eliphansi] i-Celault Clausssion. [F] Impososibili yemithetho egunyaza imposo.]

ISichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili: Unya Nesijeziso Esingavamile

Isivikelo ekusebenziseni ibheyili ephakeme nesijeziso esingavamile safakwa ngochungechunge lwezenzakalo. Ukwenqatshelwa kwesijeziso sonya nesingajwayelekile kwasetshenziswa ezifundeni Robinson v. California [[FLT] [1962]], okwaphula umthetho owenza ukuluthwa kwezidakamizwa zibe ubugebengu. URuth Ginsburg wabhala umthetho ohlangene weNkantolo yokuvikela intengo elungile ngokumelene neNhlokohlozo yeNka yeNkathi Yesidelelo engu-8, “ingxenye yokugcina yeSiphetho se-Empire, yafakwa e [[FLT]] eTimbs v. [FLT] v. [FLT] [FLT] [3:] [2010].) IJaji elingu eliwu eliphansi lezenqanyulu lokuthengisa i-Thinsuston (intshisi) ngokunye yemisho yemishoshoshosho yezen yemi yemi yemivu yezenvuvuvundo) ingunxa enkulu (inxanxa)

Umphumela Wokukhetha Amalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo WoMbuso

IFloor, Hhayi Ukukhosela: Izivikelo ZoMbuso Zingadayiswa

Isici esibucayi sokukhetha i-system ehlangeneyo siwukuthi “isimiso esisha sokwahlulela.” Ngokwesibonelo, iSiphendulo sokuqala senqabela izithiyo zangaphambi kwenkulumo, kodwa eminye imithetho yesizwe inikeza ngisho nesivikelo esikhulu kakhulu semisebenzi edingayo, njengasezindaweni ezithengwayo. INkantolo Ephakeme, ethembele ekukhulumeni kwezwe, isebenzise amalungelo ezindaba zangasese ngisho nakuba i-U.S. INkantolo Ephakeme ayidingi ukuvinjelwa kwemithetho yemithetho engokomthetho, kodwa eminye imithetho yemithetho yezomthetho inikeza ngisho nezindlela ezibanzi zokuvikela imisebenzi echazayo, njengaleyo ekhululekileyo ezitolo. Inkantolo ephakeme, encikenekile enkantolo yezikhululweni zezomthetho, ikhiphe ukukhomba kwemisebe, futhi ikhiphe ukuncintisana kwemiyamuzwa kwezidakamizwa, futhi ikhiphe ukuviswa kwemiyamuzwa kwemiyamumumumu engekhona. I-Scomisho engekhona.

Ukuchazwa Kwenkantolo YoMbuso Kushintsha Amalungelo

Izinkantolo eziphezulu zikahulumeni ziye zasungula izimfundiso ezizimele zokuchaza imithetho-siseko yazo, ngezinye izikhathi zisuka kumthetho kahulumeni olandelwayo. Lokhu kuye kwaba okubaluleke kakhulu enqubweni yobugebengu. Ngokwesibonelo, amazwe amaningi aye alahla “ukholo oluhle” kumthetho wokuhlukanisa ukuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. yamukeleka [[FL:0] eUnited States] v. Leon[FLT][19981] [1] [i-.[1984] [i-i-i-intshi]. La mazwe asekela ukuthi ubufakazi obutholakala eqinisekisini lokufuna eliphansi eliphansi kumelwe bungabekiwe, ngisho noma amaphoyisa eziphatha ngokholo oluhle. Endaweni yokuziveza, inani elimangalisayo lezindawo eziye zandanda kakhulu ukuba zizondwa intethele, kanti isilinganiso esivamile ngaphansi kwesivikelo [FL:2].[V.[3][3] I-St.[3] i-F. i-f. i-octivedditionsssss, inguevition, ingulile kungathi ingunxa eme

Umphakathi Nokucindezeleka Okunamandla

Ukufakwa kwesimiso sokukhetha kuye kwagxekwa ngokululaza ubukhosi bezwe ngokubeka izindinganiso zesizwe ezifanayo. Nokho futhi kuhlonipha isimo sikahulumeni ngokuvumela amazwe ukuba azame amalungiselelo awo omthetho-sisekelo (*. uma nje engawephuli amagumbi aphezulu. Lokhu kucindezeleka okunamandla kulondoloza indima yezinkantolo zikahulumeni ekulungiseni inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Amazwe angenza njengezindawo zokuhlola idemokrase, ahlole ezinye izindlela ezingase zithonye ithonya i-jurisprudence. Ngokwesibonelo, amazwe amaningana kakade ayazi ilungelo lokuxhasa imfundo ezindaweni ezizimele phambi kwemithetho-mthetho-mthetho yawo siqu eU. Inkantolo ephakeme inqabile ukuqaphela ilungelo lokulawula inkululeko yombuso ([[[FLD]]]] u-Exendost [unt]]], i-Rdodritzswords.[5], futhi u-Foglovelve, u-odsonf], u-Overse-overtial.[3], u-Overtive.[3], u-oples], u-Foplet.[

Ukugxekwa Nezimpikiswano Zesikhathi Esizayo

Indaba “Yamalungelo Ayisisekelo”

Izinhlangano ezikhethayo zihlala ekwahluleleni ukuthi amalungelo “awufanele ukumiswa.” Abagxeki baphikisa lokhu kuhlola kungokomuntu futhi bavumela iNkantolo ukuba ibeke iziqondiso zayo siqu. IJaji Hugo Black, umsekeli ophambili wenhlangano ephelele, waxwayisa ukuthi ukuhlanganisa okungakhethi kwanikeza amajaji okungalawuli “ukuhamba ngokufanele” ekunqumeni ukuthi yimaphi amalungelo okungawavikela. Izimpikiswano zamuva zibonisa ukuthi: iNkantolo ifaka ilungelo lokuphatha izikhali kodwa iyenqaba ukuhlanganisa iSiphendumiso sesibili ngendlela eqinisekisa ngayo ukuba sivuleke. Ezinye izazi ziphikisa ngokuthi amalungelo o Claus, hhayi i-Iault Claus, azihloselwe ukulawulwa, nokuthi iNkantolo yeNkanto encikelweni ayifanele. [Foctive][0][0]

Umsebenzi Ongantengantengi Wokwehlukana

Akuwona wonke amalungiselelo eSigqizo seSimiso samaLungelo ahlanganisiwe. ISichibiyelo sesithathu (isikhungo samasosha) asikaze sifakwe ngenxa yokuthi akukho cala eliye lafika eNkantolo. Imfuneko enkulu yeSichibiyelo sesihlanu yokumangalela abahluleli ayikafakwa. Ilungelo leSeventy Isimende lokuqungameli sokuqungatha limane linengxenye eqediwe; iNkantolo ivumela izimemezelo ukuba zinikeze abahluleli abahluli bezehluleli abahluli becala abaziwayo abathola imiphumela eyiqiniso emacaleni omphakathi. Eminye izivumelwano, njengaleyo yeSiphakamiso sika-Expression, isanda kufakwa imvume yecala kuphela engokomthetho eholela ekunqumeni. INkanto ewugwetshwe ngokukhipha imvume yokukhipha imvume yokukhipha imvume emakhaya, ishiya udaba obala ukuthi isebenza yini. Le komiti ikhiphe izigwebo ezika ngenxa yesikhathi esizayo.

Amasimu Ezombangazwe Nemithetho

Ukuhlanganiswa kwemithetho kuhlala kuvelele ngokwezombangazwe. Imithetho yamajaji ehlangene ivame ukugcizelela ubuzwe nokuvinjelwa, ibuza ukuthi iNkantolo kufanele ibeke izindinganiso zesizwe ezindaweni. Izahlulelo zenkululeko zithambekele ekusekeleni isivikelo esikhulu samalungelo abantu, zibheke ukuhlanganiswa njengebalulekile ekwakheni izakhamuzi. Kodwa lobu bulungisa bungashintsha kuye ngakwesokudla: ukuhlanganiswa kweSichibiyelo sesibili [iSichibiyelo seSibili [FLT:]] [[FLT]] [FLT] [[FLT]] yalwelward [[ yalwelwah] yalwelwa yizi nemithetho engokwenkululeko futhi ephikisayo. Isiqondiso sokuhlanganisa ithonya amalungelo omthetho womthetho.

Ukubheka Phambili: Ikusasa Lamalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni

I-Livitus isebenza kakhulu manje; okuningi kweSigqi Samalungelo asemuva kusebenza ezifundazweni. Nokho imiphumela yayo iyaqhubeka iguqula indawo njengoba iNkantolo Ephakeme ilungisa izinga lecala ngalinye elifakwayo kwesokudla. Icala lamuva nje Ramos v. Louisiana [2020] yasebenzisa imfuneko yeSimemezelo seSichibiyelo seSitha seSithandathu sokuHlazisa imvume yombuso, ilungisa ukuphambuka okukhulu okwavunyelwa amashumi eminyaka. [[FLTLT:]] Timbs v. Indianaians[[FLT:] [12]] yavuma ukuthi indiaders ehlasimu ephezulu [FLT] i-octivess sholoved projectivestings of Direncessionerventials, ukuvula umgwaqo omusha wezinhlelo zomphakathi eziphikisa.

Phakathi naleso sikhathi, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zihlanganyela ekuzihlaziyeni ngokuqinile komthetho-mthetho wazo siqu. Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo yaseNew York yezikhalo, yanquma ukuthi umthetho-sisekelo wezwe unikeza isivikelo esinamandla kakhulu ekuqapheni iSichibiyelo sesine esingagunyaziwe kuneSiphendu sesine ( Abantu v. Weaver[, 2009]). INkantolo ePhakathi yeWashington ibambelele ekuhlolweni kwemithetho-mthetho-mfundazwe inqabela izigi zeGPS ezingekho mkhondo ngisho nalapho ukuhlola kwezwelo kukuvumela. Lezi zinqumo zibonisa ukuthi umthetho-mthetho-mthetho awuyona nje isimiso esisemuva sokuzivikela. Njenge-U. NjengeNkantolo ephakeme i-U.

Isiphetho

Ukufakwa kwenkululeko eyisisekelo kusekuhlonzeni kwe-manualism nelungelo lomuntu siqu eMelika. Kusukela ekhulwini leminyaka lokubekwa kwecala ngecala, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yahlanganisa iBill of Rights yafaka umthetho kahulumeni, iqinisekisa ukuthi inkululeko eyisisekelo ayishiywanga ekuthatheni izinjongo ezinkulu zikahulumeni. Imfundiso iye yadala isisekelo sesivikelo esingenakuphulwa, kuyilapho ukulondoloza indawo yecala likahulumeni. Imithetho-Constitutions, ngokulandelayo, iye yaba amathuluzi abalulekile okwandisa amalungelo angaphezulu komthetho omkhulu. Njengoba indawo yomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wezwe ishintsha, ukuhlanganisa phakathi kokuhlanganisa uhulumeni nencazelo yezwe liyokuqhubekela ukuchaza amalungelo abantu baseMelika abhekanayo ngokoqobo. Ukuqonda ukuhlelwa komthetho-onke kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo ufinyelela kanjani ekuphileni kwethu kwansuku zonke (kusukela esimweni sokuxhumana)