Isingeniso: Isizathu Sokuba Uhulumeni Uhlele Izinto Ezibalulekile Zenguquko Yezomnotho

Izinguquko zezomnotho nokusetshenziswa kwezindawo ezizimele azenzeki. Zibunjwa, zikhawulezwe, noma zivinjelwe izakhiwo zezombangazwe abakhi bezimiso abasebenza kuzo. Umklamo kahulumeni — kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ugxilisa amandla noma uyawusakaza, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi abaqondisi babhekana neziphakamiso zemithetho ezibuthakathaka noma iziphetho eziqinile, ukuthi amaqembu akhutshiwe noma ahlukene — akha uhlelo lwezisusa kanye nemifantu enquma ngokushesha nangokucophelela ukuthi izwe lingawuthuthukisa kabusha kangakanani umnotho walo. Ukuqonda lamandla okwakhayo abalulekile kubathengisi, ochwepheshe bezeluleko, nabenzi bezimiso zezimiso zemithetho ngokufanayo.

Impikiswano ngohlelo lukahulumeni nenguquko inesikhathi eside ikhona. Izazi zezezomnotho zezombangazwe ziye zaveza ukuthi “kubadlali” — abantu noma amaqembu avumelanayo adingekayo ukuze kushintshwe ushintsho — zingavala ngisho nezinguquko ezisungulwe kahle. Ngokuphambene, izimiso ezivumela ukuthatha isinyathelo esiwujuqu sokuqondisa kungaphoqelela phakathi noshintsho olubuhlungu, kodwa futhi zingantula neziphetho ezidingekayo ukuze kugwenywe amaphutha esimiso. Lesihloko sihlola indlela izakhiwo zikahulumeni ezihlukene ezisiza ngayo noma ezithiya inguquko yezomnotho kanye nokubekwa kwesakhiwo, zidweba ubufakazi obungalinganiyo futhi zinikeze ukulungiswa kohlelo lokuhlola.

Ukudweba Indawo Ebukekayo: Uhulumeni Wezakhiwo Zokuxhumana

Izimiso Zasephalamende

Esimisweni sephalamende, igatsha eliphethe (ikhabethe nondunankulu) lithathwa futhi liyolandisa kumphathi wendlu yomthetho. Lokhu kuhlanganiswa kwemibuso kungaveza ukungaguquguquki okusheshayo noma okukhubazayo, kuye ngesimiso seqembu. Uhulumeni owodwa oyingxenye eyodwa — njengase-United Kingdom noma eNew Zealand esikhathini esiningi senkathi yangemva kwempi — ungamisa umthetho ngokushesha ngoba umphathi ulawula uhlelo lwemithetho. Nokho, uma ohulumeni abahlangene bevamile, njengase-Italy noma kwa-Israel, inguquko ingancishintshwa isidingo sokwanelisa izithakazelo eziningi.

Isiyalo samaqembu ephalamende singenye indlela eguquguqukayo ebucayi. Ezimisweni ze-speed yeqembu eliqinile, ukuvukela kweqolo le-fullback ayivamile, ivumela uhulumeni ukuba asebenzise izinyathelo ezingathandwayo kodwa ezidingekile zezomnotho. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, izimiso ezinesiyalo seqembu elibuthakathaka noma ezingakholeki njalo zingabona izinguquko zishintshwa ngemva kokushintsha kukahulumeni.

Izimiso Zobumongameli

Izimiso zikamongameli zihlukanisa amagatsha aphethe nezomthetho, ngalinye linemithetho ezimele yokuzikhethela. Lokhu kuhlukana kungadala kokubili amathuba nezithiyo. Umongameli oneningi lemithetho esekelayo, njenge-United States ngaphansi kwe-Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal, angaqhubezela phambili ngezinguquko ezinkulu. Kodwa uma umongameli nengqungquthela kulawulwa amaqembu ahlukene — isimo esaziwa njengohulumeni ohlukene — i-productrockcky ngokuvamile iveza imiphumela. Izimiso zobumongameli zivame futhi ukuba nezinqumo ezimisiwe, ezinganikeza ukuzinza kodwa futhi zivikele umphathi wesigebengu oyisidlakelayo ekucindezeleni okuthandwayo.

Isici esiyinhloko sezimiso eziningi zobumongameli ukuba khona kokuhlolwa okuqinile nokulinganiswa, kuhlanganise nokubukezwa kokwahlulela kanye nezishaya-mthetho ze-bidamaral. Lokhu kungavimbela izinguquko ezisheshayo noma ezingekho, kodwa futhi kwandisa inani lamachashaza e-veto. Ukuze kuchazwe, lokhu kusho ukuthi ngisho nomongameli ozinikele angabhekana nezinyanga noma iminyaka yokuzinqumela ngaphambi kokuba ibhizinisi elizimele likahulumeni lithengiswe.

Isimiso Se - semi - Presidery Ne - Hybrid System

IFrance, iRussia, kanye nezifundazwe eziningi zangemva kweSoviet zisebenza ngaphansi kwezimiso ezivamile, lapho umongameli okhethwe ngokuqondile ehlala khona nondunankulu nomphathi-hulumeni onomthwalo wemfanelo ephalamende. Ukulinganisela kwamandla kuya ngokuxhomeke ekutheni isigaba sikamongameli siyawulawula yini umnyango wendlu yomthetho. Umthetho womthetho — uma umongameli nephalamende abaningi bengaba amalungu ahlukene — kungadala izingxabano zangaphakathi ezivimbela izinguquko zezomnotho, njengoba kwabonakala eFrance ekupheleni konyaka ka-1990.

Ezinye izimiso ze - product, njenge-Swiss Federal Council noma ukulawulwa okuyinhloko kweQembu lamaKhomanisi laseChina, zimelana nokubekwa kwemithetho elula. Ezimisweni zobushiqela noma zesigaba esisodwa, isivinini sokuguqula isivinini sivame ukuphakama ngenxa yokuthi abadlali be - veto bayasuswa, kodwa ukuntula ukulandisa kungaholela ekuhlaseleni nasekukhohlakaleni.

Federal v. Unitary Programmes

Ngaphandle kobuhlobo bezikhulu eziphethe, ukuhlukaniswa kwezindawo kwezindaba zikagesi. Izimiso ze-Federal (umz., eNdiya, Brazil, iJalimane) zisusa igunya elibalulekile emazweni noma ezifundazweni. Lokhu kungasiza ekutholeni ushintsho — ukusungulwa kwezimiso zombuso kungalinganiswa — kodwa futhi kudala izingqimba eziningi ezibangela ukukhubazeka. Ngokwesibonelo, eNdiya, imizamo kahulumeni ophethe yokucuthulula isigxobo semigodi yamalahle yabambeka isikhathi eside ngokumelana nokumelana nezindawo ezithwala amalahle.

Izimiso ezihlanganisayo (isib., eFrance, eJapane) zigxilisa amandla esikhungweni, zenza kube lula ukusebenzisa izinguquko zesizwe — kodwa futhi zisengozini yokungazinaki izinguquko zezindawo ezingase zidinge izindlela ezifanelanayo.

Abasekeli Bezinguquko Zezomnotho Nokuchuma

Igunya Eliphethe Nentando Yezombangazwe Eligcizelelwe

Uma umholi noma iqembu elibusayo linegunya elicacile lokuzikhethela kanye neziphakamiso ezimbalwa ezingokomthetho, izinguquko zingahamba ngokushesha. Lokhu kuvame ukuba njalo ezimisweni zephalamende ezinezici ezinkulu ezizimele. Izinguquko ezinkulu zezomnotho zaseNew Zealand kuma 1980, ezahlanganisa ukuncishiswa kwemithetho yezentengiselwano, ukudayiswa kwempahla kahulumeni, kwaqhutshwa uhulumeni we-Labour owayelawula ipalamente. Ngokufanayo, ipeni le-Chile yaqala ukumiswa ngenkathi yokuqala yama-1980, i-dentelligaracy yezempi eyayingamelani nomthetho wobushiqela.

Nokho, igunya eligcwele liyinkemba egobe ngapha nangapha. Ngaphandle kokuhlola okuzimele, izinguquko zingaklanywa kabi noma zithathwe izinzuzo kubefundisi abaphezulu. Isihluthulelo siwukuthi intando enamandla yezombangazwe, uma ihlangene namatechnocrat anekhono nezinqubo ezikhanyayo, inganqoba i-intria eshaya izinhlungu zezimiso.

Indawo Ezungezile Nesimiso Sezombangazwe Esiqinile

Abatshali bemali badinga ukubikezelwa kusengaphambili. Izakhiwo zikahulumeni eziveza imifelandawonye eqinile noma isigaba esisodwa sombuso zinciphisa ingozi yokuthi imiphumela yokulungisa iyoncitshiswa ngemva kokhetho olulandelayo. Izimiso zikaMongameli, ngemibandela yazo emisiwe, zinganikeza ukuzinza ngisho noma umphathi wenkampani engathandwa, uma nje umongameli esaqhubeka enziwa. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, uhulumeni uwohloka njalo ezimisweni zephalamende (umz., ohulumeni base-Italy abangu-69 bayakuvimbela ukutshala imali isikhathi eside futhi benza ukuthengiswa kwezentengiselwano yezentengiselwano kungakhangi kakhulu kubabhidisi.

Ukuhleleka kuxhomeke ekuzimeleni kwezinhlangano eziyinhloko. Lapho amabhange ayinhloko, izinhlangano ezilawulayo, nezinhlangano ezimelene nokonakala kuvikeleka ekungeneleni kwezombangazwe — njengasesimiso sephalamende laseJalimane noma isimiso somongameli waseChile — ukukholeka okungokwenguquko kuyakhula.

Izikhungo Eziphumelelayo Nekhono Lokuphatha

Izinguquko nokubekwa kwezakhiwo akuzona nje ukudlulisa imithetho; zidinga izikhulu ezinekhono ukuze ziklame izinqubo zokuthengisa, impahla, nokulawula ukushintsha. Amazwe anamasiko aqinile enkonzo yomphakathi, njenge-Singapore ne-New Zealand, angasebenzisa izinhlelo eziyinkimbinkimbi zokuzidlulisa. Ngokuhlukile, amazwe anezinhlangano ezibuthakathaka angabona ukuhweba ngempahla noma inkohlakalo.

Izakhiwo zikahulumeni ezikhuthaza ukubuthwa kwabantu futhi zivikele izisebenzi zomphakathi ekudutshulweni kwezombangazwe (njengasezimisweni eziningi zephalamende) zithambekele ekwakheni isikhundla esiphakeme sokubusa.

Indima Yeziqondisi Nezinja Ezizimele

Ukuzimela okuphumelelayo ngokuvamile kudinga ukumiswa kwezindikimba ezizimele ezizimele ukuze zengamele izimakethe ezisanda kuvunyelwa. Ngokwesibonelo, isimiso sephalamende le-UK sakha abaphathi abanjengo-Ostem no-Ostrom. Ngokufanayo, ukuguqulwa kwe-telecom yaseNdiya kusekelwe yigunya elinamandla lokuzivumelanisa. Ukuba khona kwalezi zikhungo kunciphisa ingozi yokuthatha indawo yezindawo ezizimele, ezingakhela imibuso yezombangazwe, ezingakha ukusekela kwezombangazwe ekulungiseni inguquko.

Ukuya Ezindaweni Ezinguquko Zezomnotho Nezokuhwebelana

Ukungalawuleki Kwezombangazwe Nokushintsha Kaningi Kukahulumeni

Ohulumeni abaphila isikhashana baphakathi kwezithiyo ezinamandla kakhulu zokuguqula. Emazweni anamaqembu amaningi ahlukene noma angenakho ukukhomba, isikhathi esifinyele sabenzi bezomthetho siyancipha. Akukho hulumeni ofuna ukuchitha inhloko - dolobha yezombangazwe ngezinguquko ezibuhlungu ezingase zithele izithelo kuphela ngemva kokuwa kwayo. Lenkinga ikhulu kakhulu ezimisweni zephalamende ngokuhlukanisa i-alpharamenti nokuhlukanisa, njenge-Italy ngawo 1990 noma u-Israel emlandweni wayo. Izinhlelo zokuzimo ezingokwezombangazwe zivame ukuqaliswa kodwa kamuva zibuye zifinyezwe njengeminyela.

Ukonakala Nokubanjwa Uhulumeni

Ukonakala akuphazamisi imithombo yezimali kuphela kodwa futhi kwakha amaqembu anamandla amelene nokubonana nokuncintisana. Ezimisweni ezineziphetho eziqinile nezilinganiselwe — kungakhathaliseki ukuthi yi-presidentia noma i-palamenti — ababusayo bangasebenzisa i-privatation ukuze bakhokhele i-cronation. Uma izakhiwo zikahulumeni zivumela abaphathi ukuba bavumele ukuqashelwa kwemithetho (umzk., ngokwesinqumo kwezinye izimiso zobumongameli), ukuhlelwa kwe-pritation kungaba imoto yokulawula inzuzo kunokuba inzuzo. I-Russia i-pracerritation iyisibonelo esiyisixwayiso: ukungabikho kokulawula okuphumelelayo kwezeluleko ezimboni eziphambili kuholwa ukulawulwa kwezezimboni.

Ngokuphambene, izimiso ezinezinhlangano ezinamandla ezimelene nokonakala kanye nenkululeko yokwahlulela — njengemibuso yasephalamende laseSweden — zakha izimo ezibangela ukuphambana kwezindawo ezisengozini enkulu yokuveza izimakethe zokuncintisana.

Ukugxilisa Amasu Kumandla Nokuntuleka Kobunhloli

Nakuba abadlali abaningi kakhulu beveto bengase bavimbele inguquko, bambalwa kakhulu abangaveza izinguquko ezithi ukuntuleka kwenani labantu bathenge ngaphakathi futhi kamuva zishintshwe. Ezimisweni zobumongameli lapho iqembu elilodwa lilawula wonke amagatsha, ukwakha izakhiwo ezibanzi kungase kungadingeki, kodwa izinguquko zingapheliswa uma ukuphikiswa ekugcineni kuphumelela. Izinguquko zokwakha zeChile ngaphansi kwePinochet zasekelwa kakhulu ngemva kokubuyela edemokrati, kodwa ngenxa nje yokuthi ukuphikiswa kwabekwa noma izinguquko zabonakala ziphumelela. Nokho, emazweni amaningi, izinguquko ezibangelwa yi-synote cul ziyavuse.

Abadlali Abayi - Veto: Amacala, Izinkantolo Nabangane Bezenhlalo

Inani labadlali beveto nezinhlobonhlobo — izikhungo noma abadlali abavumelana nezimiso ezizoshintshwa — banganqanda kakhulu ukushintshwa. Ezimisweni zikamongameli, umphathi kufanele akhululeke nendlu yomthetho ehlukene; ezimisweni zikahulumeni, amaqembu ahlukene angavimbela izinguquko zesizwe; emazweni anezinkantolo zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo, ukuqamba iprojekthi kungabekelwa inselele njengokwephulwa kwamalungelo empahla. Ngisho nezinyunyana zezisebenzi kanye namabhizinisi kungasebenza njenge-veto abadlali lapho befakwa ngokomthetho ekwenzeni izimiso zezwe, njengasemkhankasweni yezenkambini yaseJalimane.

Isibonelo esaziwayo se-veto-dropbock ephambili ihluleka kwe-United States ukumisa inguquko ebanzi yezokunakekela impilo amashumi amaningi eminyaka, nakuba amandla afanayo enganqanda ukuhlaziywa. Ngokwesibonelo, imizamo yaseNdiya yokususa amabhange ezindawo zomphakathi yabhekana nokuphikiswa ezinyunyana zezisebenzi namaqembu ezombangazwe, futhi intuthuko yayihamba kancane kwaze kwaba yilapho ukuncitshiswa kwezinhlekelele kushintsha izinga lokubusa.

Ukuhlola Icala

INew Zealand: Isikhungo Sokuguqula Izakhiwo SePhalamende

Ngaphansi kwesimiso sokuqala sephalamende esinengxenye eyodwa yohulumeni abaningi, iNew Zealand yashintsha kakhulu ngokwezomnotho phakathi kuka-1984 no-1993. ILabour nohulumeni bezwe basusa izimakethe zezezimali, basusa izimali zokuxhasa ezolimo, kanye nomthetho wemishini yezindiza, nesitimela. Ukungabikho kwabadlali abahlukene — igumbi elilodwa kuphela lomthetho nohulumeni ababuthakathaka bendawo — kwavunyelwa ushintsho olusheshayo. Nokho, izinguquko zashintshwa ngokwengxenye noma zalungiswa eminyakeni eyalandela, kubonisa ukuthi amandla agcwele angaholela ekuphathweni. Ukushintsha ukuxubana kwezimiso zezindiza ngo-19969 kuqhubekele ushintsho, kodwa inkathi yangaphambili ishiye incwadi yendlela yokulungisa igelebhulo. [FF:]

IChile: Ukubusa Ngentando Yeningi, Ukubusa, Nokuzinziswa Kwezinguquko

Okuhlangenwe nakho kuka-Chile kubonisa indlela isakhiwo sikahulumeni esithinte ngayo ukumiswa kwenguquko futhi nokusekelwa. I-junta (1973-1990) yezempi yasebenzisa amandla ayo aphelele ukuletha izinguquko ezinkulu zezentengiselwano, kuhlanganise nokubekwa kwezindawo zomphakathi, impilo, nemfundo. Lapho kubuya idemokrase, uhulumeni omusha walondoloza lezinguquko eziningi ngoba wadala izinguquko ezinamandla zokuzuza izinguquko kanye nomthetho-mthetho wezwe wafuna izinguquko ezinkulu. Isimiso sobumongameli weChile, sihlangene nezinhlangano eziqinile zebhange elisenkabeni yezenkabazwe, siye sanikeza isakhiwo esiqinile sokulungisa inguquko eqhubekayo. Nokho ukufakwa kwamandla kubaphathi benkampani futhi kwaholela ehlazweni lokuhweba, njengokuthengiswa kwezindawo ezingaphansi kwenani eliphambili. [FFF:]

ENdiya: Izinhlaka Zephalamende Eliwumbuso

Isimiso sephalamende sezwe laseNdiya sihlanganisa isikhulu esiqinile esiphethe ohulumeni abanamandla kanye nezindawo eziningi ezihlukene. Izinguquko zezomnotho nokuhlaziywa kwezindawo azilingani. Inkinga yonyaka ka-1991 yokukhokha ivumela uhulumeni ophethe ukuba acindezele ngokukhuphula ngoba umongo wezombangazwe uncishisiwe okwesikhashana. Kodwa amaza enguquko alandelayo aye amiswa njalo amaqembu ahlangene, ohulumeni, nezinkantolo. Ngokwesibonelo, ukubekwa kwezindawo zamabhange nezinhlangano zomshuwalense wezwelo kuvinjelwe ngokuphindaphindiwe yizinhlangano zezisebenzi ezisekelwa amaqembu ezombangazwe. Okwamanje, i-tecom ne-Prouniat yalandelwa ngenxa yokuthi izinhlangano zombuso zisungulwe futhi zigcinwe nguhulumeni ophethe. IBhangemuva i-World Bank [FFFF] iphawula ukuthi i-InFFFoctal.[1]

Ukusiza Izinguquko Ekwakhiweni Kukahulumeni

Ukuqonda isimo sikahulumeni akuyona nje indlela yokufunda. Kunemiphumela esebenzayo kubashisekeli benguquko, izinhlangano zomhlaba wonke, nabatshali bezimali. Lapho amaphuzu eveto ewaningi, abashisekeli benguquko kungadingeka bakhe izivumelwano ezibanzi, basebenzise izinkinga zemali ukuze babangele amafasitela ethuba, noma izinguquko ezilandelanayo ukuze banciphise ukuphikiswa. Ezimisweni ezinamandla okulawula aphakeme, abashisekeli benguquko kufanele bagcizelele ukuba sobala nokuzimela ukuze bavimbele ukuxhaka nokuqiniseka.

Ukuqamba ngokuqondile, ukukhetha indlela yezindaba. Ukuhlobana kwezinhlelo, uhlu lomphakathi, nezisebenzi kulingana nemongo yezombangazwe ehlukene. Ezimisweni zephalamende ezinesiyalo esiqinile seqembu, uhlelo lokuhlanganisa izakhiwo eziningi lungamiswa ngokushesha. Ezimisweni zikamongameli ezihlukene phakathi, abashisekeli benguquko bangagxila emabhizinisini amancane, amazwe angenaluzwela kwezombangazwe kuqala ukuze bakhe ukuthenjwa.

Isiphetho

Isakhiwo sikahulumeni asisona isiphetho, kodwa silawula kakhulu indlela kanye nejubane lezinguquko zezomnotho kanye nokubekwa phambili. Izimiso zePhalamende ezinezimo eziyinhloko eyodwa zingaba izinjini zoshintsho olusheshayo, kodwa zingaba ingozi yokuphaphazanyiswa nokuguqulwa. Izimiso zikamongameli zinganikeza ukuzinza kodwa futhi i-reatrock. Izimiso ze-freall zivumela ukuhlola kodwa zivumela ukuqina kwesizwe. Abashisekeli bezinguquko abaphumelelayo yilabo abaqonda izakhiwo zabo siqu kanye namasu amakhono obuchwepheshe asebenza ngawo — hhayi ngokumelene — nezisusa ezadalwa yisakhiwo sawo sikahulumeni. Izimiso zentengiselwano, nezombangazwe ziyohlala zikhona izithako ezigxekayo, kodwa indlela ezihlangana ngayo ixhomeke eMthethweni we-DRT.[1] Njengoba amazwe emhlabeni wonke eqhubeka nokuncintisana nezinkinga zenkululeko ye-modurali yeze yezentengiselwa.[5]