I-odacs ephethe kakhulu yamathuluzi alandelayo umongameli wase-U.S. ukhona, kodwa ahlala eyingxenye eqondwa kakhulu yokubusa kwaseMelika. Leziziqondiso, ezakhishwa yiWhite House, ziphethe ithonya lomthetho futhi zivumele umongameli ukuba ahlele, aqondise izinhlangano zikahulumeni, futhi aphendule ezinkingeni ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa. Othisha nabafundi abafunda umlando waseMelika nomphakathi, baqonde ukuthi iziyalezo eziphethe zisebenza kanjani ekwakheni komthetho-mthetho zibalulekile, hhayi nje kuphela ekuqondeni iziphathiso zesikhathi esidlule kodwa nasekuhloleni izimpikiswano zezombangazwe zamanje.

Iyini Izimiso Eziqondisayo?

Umyalo ophethe uvela kumongameli olawula imisebenzi kahulumeni kahulumeni. Nakuba uMthetho-sisekelo ungawachazi ngokucacile ama-oda abaphathi, uye wasetshenziswa kusukela ezinsukwini zokuqala zerepublic. UGeorge Washington wakhipha umyalo wokuqala wezikhulu ngo-1789, efundisa izikhulu zekhathektha ukuba zilungiselele imibiko ngesifundazwe seminyango yazo. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, amongameli baye bakhipha izinkulungwane zeziqondiso ezinjalo, kusukela eziqondisweni zokuphatha kuya ezimisweni eziyisisekelo eziyisisekelo kuya ezinguqulweni zezimiso.

Iziqondiso eziphethe zikhishwa kuyi Fateral Register futhi zinemiphumela ebophayo yomthetho ezinhlanganweni zamagatsha eziphethe. Nokho, azikwazi ukudala imithetho emisha noma imali efanele; igunya lawo lisuka emithethweni ekhona noma emandleni omthetho-mthethweni kamongameli. Uma umongameli ekhipha uhlelo oludlula leyomingcele, izinkantolo zingayishaya phansi.

Isisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Sezimiso Eziqondisayo

Isisekelo esingokomthetho seziqondiso zezikhulu siseSiphakamiso II soMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. II, Ingxenye 1 yezangaphandle kumongameli, nesiqephu 3 sibeka umongameli umthwalo “wokunakekela ukuba iMithetho iqedwe ngokwethembeka.” Ndawonye, lezi zigijimi zinikeza umongameli imvume ebanzi yokuphatha i-pricion futhi ziqinisekisa ukuthi injongo yenhlangano iyafezwa.

Amandla Asetshenziswayo Nomkhuba Womlando

UMthetho-sisekelo awukhulumi ngokuqondile iziyalezo zokuqondisa. Kodwa umqondo wamandla ashiwoyo [1] uqashelwe ku-Mcloch v. Maryland (1819)(19)) uvumela umongameli ukuba enze izenzo ezidingekile ukuze afeze imithwalo yezomthetho-sisekelo. (196). INkantolo Ephakeme iqaphele ukuthi umongameli unamandla angokwendabuko ezindabeni zangaphandle kanye nokulondeka kwesizwe, njengoba kubonwa [[FLT] United States v. Cuttles-right Right Right Croup.[FLT] [193] [196] [iiSinyathelo sempi seze].[FLT]) ngenxa yempi egunyazwe njalo.

Ukuqonda lokhu kucindezeleka komthetho-sisekelo kubaluleke kakhulu: iziyalezo eziphetheyo zinamandla kodwa njalo zingaphansi kwemingcele ebekwe nguMthetho-sisekelo, uKhongolo, nezinkantolo. Ukuze uthole ukuhlolwa okuningiliziwe kwesithi “Nakekela” isigaba, bheka i-Cornell Legin Information Institute ye-Atit II .

Indima Yezimiso Eziqondisayo Kuhulumeni

Imishini yabaqondisi ifeza imisebenzi eminingi kuhulumeni wase-U.S. ayimane nje izimemezelo zentando kamongameli; ingamathuluzi asebenzayo aguqula imigomo yesimiso ezenzweni eziqinile. Ngezansi kuneziyalezo eziyinhloko eziqondiswe abaqondisi bemisebenzi.

Ukusebenzisa Imithetho Egunyazwe Izishaya - mthetho

Ngemva kokushaya umthetho, umongameli unikeza umyalo ophethe wokuqondisa indlela izinhlangano zikahulumeni okufanele ziwusebenzise ngayo lo mthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, ngemva kokumiswa kwe-Cec Air Act, amongameli bakhipha iziyalezo zokunikeza imithwalo yemfanelo eMthethweni Wendawo Ezungezile yokuzivikela nokumisa imithetho emisiwe. Le mithetho ayiwuthatheli indawo umthetho kodwa inikeza isiqondiso esinemininingwane esigcwalisa izikhala ezishiywe ulimi lwemithetho.

Ukuqondisa Izinkonzo Nemisebenzi Yomphakathi

Umongameli, njengenhloko yegatsha eliphethe, ukhipha iziyalo zokuhlela kabusha izinhlangano, ukumisa amakomiti amasha okuqondisa, noma ukumisa izindinganiso zokuphumelela. I-Optional 12866 (1993), ekhishwe nguMongameli Clinton, ifuna ukuba izinhlangano zikahulumeni ziqhube izinqumiso ezikhokhelwayo zemithetho emikhulu. Lezo ziyalezo zihlela umsebenzi wansuku zonke wenhlangano futhi zingaba nemiphumela ephawulekayo endleleni imali yabakhokhi bentela esetshenziswa ngayo.

Ukusingatha Izimo Zesizwe

Enye yezindlela eziphezulu kakhulu zokuqondisa inqubo yempi ebhekene nezinhlekelele zesizwe. I-National Emerdiation Act (1976) ivumela umongameli ukuba amemezele isimo esiphuthumayo sesizwe ngohlelo lwezikhulu, avule amandla akhethekile uKhongolo-kahulumeni ogunyaziwe ngaphambili. Kusukela ngo-1976, amongameli baye bamemezela izimo eziningi eziphuthumayo ezindabeni kusukela ebuphekula kuya empilweni yomphakathi. Ngo-2020, uMongameli uTrump wasebenzisa umyalo wesikhulu wokuqondisa izimali ekwakheni udonga lomngcele ngemva kwemithetho yenqanyukela ekulinganiseni isilinganiso esiphelele semali (i-a i-a) kamuva enkantolo.

Ukunqanda Umthetho Wakwamanye Amazwe Nezindaba Zamazwe Ngamazwe

Iziqondiso eziphethe ngokuyinhloko ziyindlela amongameli abaqhuba ngayo ukusebenzelana nokuphatha ubuhlobo bomhlaba wonke. Bangamisa izijeziso, ukuvimbela ukuhamba, noma ukuvalela izakhiwo zezinhlangano zakwamanye amazwe. Ngokwesibonelo, u-Odder 13694 (2015), owasayinwa nguMongameli Obama, izijeziso ezigunyaziwe kubantu abahileleke emsebenzini weze-webhusayithi. Ngenxa yokuthi ngokuvamile ukuhleleka kwamanye amazwe kudinga ukuthatha isinyathelo ngokushesha, amongameli baye bajabulela inkululeko enkulu engokwesiko kulendawo.

Ukulinganiselwa Nokuhlola Izimiso Eziqondisayo

Naphezu kwegunya labo, iziyalezo zezikhulu aziyona isheke elingenalutho. Isimiso somthetho-sisekelo sokuhlola nokulinganisela siqinisekisa ukuthi amanye amagatsha angacindezela amandla kamongameli. Lokhu okulandelayo kubaluleke kakhulu kubafundi bomphakathi ukuba baqonde.

Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela

Izinkantolo ze-Federal zingawisa umthetho wesikhulu uma uphula umthetho noma udlula igunya lomthetho. Izinselele ezingokomthetho zivame ukuvela ngokushesha ngemva kokukhishwa komyalo wempikiswano. Ngokwesibonelo, uMongameli Trump’s Iorg 13769 (i- “Travel Bal”) yavalwa izinkantolo zesifunda eziningi phambi kweNkantolo Ephakeme ekugcineni yasekela inguquko ebukeziwe. Ngokufanayo, umthetho kaMongameli Biden wemithetho yokugoma imvume yabaqashi abakhulu wavinjelwa ngokwengxenye yiNkanto eNkantolo engu-2022. [[FLT:] i-American Bar Association inikeza ukucubuthwa okufinyela okufinyele kwemiyamu engokomthetho yezekwayo yezeluleko yezeluleko

Isinyathelo Senhlangano

UKhongolo-mthetho lunganikeza uhlelo olungcono ngokuthatha umthetho omusha othatha indawo yayo. Nakuba umongameli engakhipha izikweletu ezinjalo, iningi eliyisithathu kuzo zombili izindlu lingasebenzisa amandla ayo esikhwama semali: uma uhlelo ludinga imali abenzi bomthetho abenqaba ukuyinika, lomthetho ungase ungabi nakuphoqelelwa. Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-Congregational Review Act ivumela amaKhongolo ukuba agumbuqele izenzo ezithile zesikhulu phakathi nesikhathi esilinganiselwe.

Umbono Womphakathi Nokucindezela Kwezombangazwe

Iziqondiso zezikhulu zingaphansi kwenkantolo yomphakathi. Ukuphikiswa okugcwele kungaqeda inhloko - dolobha yezombangazwe kamongameli kanye nokulungisa izikhali. Izehlakalo, ukucubungula, nemikhankaso yotshani kuye kwaholela amongameli ekuthatheni noma ekushintsheni iziyalezo. Ngokwesibonelo, umthetho kaMongameli Obama wokufuduka (Isenzo Seziphendulo Sezezwelo Lwabazali BaseMelika, noma I-DAP) ubhekene nomthetho omkhulu wezombangazwe kangangokuthi awuzange ungene ngokuphelele, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme yafakelwa ngokomthetho wayo ngo-2016.

Izinkampani Nezikhulu Zombuso Waseburhulumenteni

Ngisho naphakathi kwegatsha eliphethe, iziyalezo zingaphikiswa yizisebenzi zomphakathi ezisebenza emsebenzini ezingase zithathe isikhathi esincane sokusebenzisa noma ukucela isiqondiso esicacisa. Ukuphumelela kokuhleleka ngokuvamile kuxhomeke ekusebenzeni kwezinhloko zezinhlangano nabaphathi, abaningi babo abakhonza ngaphesheya kwezindawo zokuqondisa. Umongameli uTrump “ungena ezikhungweni ze - xhaphozi”, ngokwesibonelo, umqondisi wezomthetho wamuva wahlanekezelwa yizinkampani ezaziwachaza kancane.

Izibonelo Ezingokomlando Zohlelo Olulawulayo

Ukuze siqonde indlela iziyalezo eziphethe eziye zathonya ngayo umlando waseMelika, kuwusizo ukuhlola iziqondiso ezithile ezinemiphumela ehlala njalo.

Uhlelo Lomqondisi 906: Interlinement yaseJapane yaseMelika

Ikhutshelwe nguMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt ngoFebruary 1942, u-Education Order 9066 ugunyaze umkhosi ukuba umise “izifunda ezihlukene” futhi uthathe amaJapane ahlala eNtshonalanga Coast. Abantu abangaphezu kwe-1200,000, izakhamuzi ezimbili ezaziyi-U.S., zathunyelwa emakamu. Lomyalo kamuva walahlwa njengokwephula inkululeko yomphakathi, futhi uKhomishani wadlulisa i-Civil Libertes Act ka- 1988 yokuxolisa nokubuyisana. [[FLT:] iNational Archivess ziphethe incwadi yokuqala futhi zinikeza imithombo yemfundo kulohlelo [[FLT]].

Umyalo Ophethe 9981: Ukuhlukaniswa Kwamabutho Ahlomile

UMongameli uHarry Truman wakhipha u-Educative Order 9981 ngoJulayi 1948, ememezela “ukulingana kwempatho kanye nethuba kubo bonke abantu abasemabuthweni ahlomile ngaphandle kokuqondene nohlanga, ibala, inkolo noma umsuka wesizwe.” Lomyalo walahla i-U.S. futhi waphawula isikhathi esibalulekile emzamweni wamalungelo abantu. Yabhekana nokuphikiswa okunzima kwabanye abaholi bezempi nabezombangazwe baseNingizimu, kodwa ukuzinikela kukaTruman ekuthatheni isinyathelo sokubusa ngenkampane (*) kunokulinda umthetho. [[FLTRUT:0] I-irbalman inikeza abafundi imisebenzi eyinhloko yokutadisha lomthetho. [FLD:1]

Umyalo ophethe 13769: “Umbuso weTravel uvimber”

Isayinwe nguMongameli uDonald Trump ngo-January 2017, u-Educative Order 13769 we-Expands 13769 weze-oday e-United States yesizwe samazwe ayisikhombisa agcwele amaSulumane. Lomyalo wabangela ukubhikisha okusheshayo ezikhumulweni zezindiza ezweni lonke futhi wabekelwa inselele enkantolo. Ngemva kokubukeza kaningi. Inkantolo ePhakamileyo yasekela ukudluliselwa kwesithathu [FLTY:0]Trump v. Hawaii [2018], ithola ukuthi umongameli wayenegunya elikhulu lokufuduka ngaphansi kwe-Imgationary ne-National Act Act. Lendaba ihlala iyisibonelo sencwadi sendlela iziyalezo zezezenyukungene ne-jadiary.

Ukuhleleka Okuphethe 14008: Ukuxazulula Isimo Esibucayi Sezulu

UMongameli Joe Biden, ngosuku lwakhe lokuqala ehhovisi ngo-January 2021, wabeka umgomo wokulondoloza amazwe namanzi asemthethweni asayinwe ngo-2030, futhi waqondisa amanxusa ukuba abukeze futhi alungise izinqubo zokuqondisa zendawo ezungezile zangaphambili. Yamisa kabusha i-Punion of Advisers of Science and Technology, i-odoctives, ibeka umgomo wokusebenzisa iziyalezo zokushintsha ngokushesha amazwe namanzi ase-U.S. ngo-2030, futhi yadala i-Civinian Climate Corps. Isiyalone yayala futhi ukuba ubulungisa bemvelo buhlolwe kuzo zonke izenzo zikahulumeni. Lesiqondiso esibanzi sibonisa indlela umongameli omusha angasebenzisa ngayo iziyalezo zokuqondisa impatho ngaphandle kokulinda iKrejikisha.

Ukuhleleka Okuphethe 12866: Ukubukeza Ukuqondisa

Nakuba kungasaphawuleki kakhulu, u-Order 12866 (Clinton, 1993) uye waba nethonya elikhulu enqubweni yokubekwa kwemithetho. Kwadingeka ukuba izinhlangano zihlole izindleko nezinzuzo zezimiso ezibalulekile futhi zizibeke eHhovisi le Information neReguralatious Affairs (OIRA) ukuze zibukeze. Wonke umongameli kusukela ngaleso sikhathi uye walondoloza noma walungisa lesi sakhiwo. Ukuhlelwa kwenqubo yezindleko ezibizayo ezisalokhu zisemgangathweni wezwe namuhla.

Ukuhleleka Kweziphathimandla Kwezombangazwe Zanamuhla

Emashumini eminyaka amuva nje, ukusetshenziswa kweziqondiso zezikhulu kuye kwakhula, kushukunyiswa ukuncintisana kweqembu kanye nobunkimbinkimbi obukhulayo bukahulumeni. Abaholi babo bobabili baye baphendukela esinyatheloni esingahlangene lapho bengenakuthola umthetho.

Ukuvela Kwesenzo Esingekho Ngokomshoshaphansi

Kusukela kuFranklin D. Roosevelt yezinsuku eziyikhulu zokuqala, eyabona iziyalezo eziningi zezikhulu, kuBarack Obama “asikwazi ukulinda” umkhankaso wokuguqula ukufuduka, uhlelo lwezikhulu luye lwaba ithuluzi elivamile lokuvimbela ukunqanda ukuhlukana kwemithetho. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lomkhuba ululaza ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso; abasekeli baphikisa ngokuthi umane nje uveza iqiniso elingokomthetho lokuthi umongameli kumelwe athathe isinyathelo lapho iSishaya umthetho.

Imininingwane evela kuyi-American Presadency Project ibonisa ukuthi inani lezikhulu eziphethe liye lashintsha kakhulu ngonyaka, kodwa ukubaluleka kwe-oda ngayinye kuye kwakhula. Omongameli banamuhla basengozini kakhulu yokukhipha iziyalezo ezenza izinguquko ezinkulu zesimiso sokusebenza (isimo sezulu), ukunakekelwa kwezempilo, ukufuduka, namalungelo omphakathi kuneziyalezo zokulawula kuphela.

Izimpikiswano Zamuva Nezimpi Zasenkantolo

Isikhulu se-Trump sabona izibalo zezinselele ezingokomthetho ezikhona eziya eziqondiswe eziqondisweni eziphethe. Ngokokuhlola kwe - Institute for Constitutional Advocacy and Protection eGeorgetown Law, cishe amaphesenti angu-40 ezenzo zikaTrump ezivelele zamangalelwa, uma kuqhathaniswa namaphesenti ayishumi e-Obama ne Bush. Iziphathimandla zeBiden nazo ziye zabhekana nokubekwa indiva ngemithetho ehlobene nemithetho yokugoma, intethelelo yabafundi, kanye nomthetho wendawo ezungezile. Lamanani asikisela ukuthi i-jadicariary iba yi-arch eyandayo ekuhloleni amandla omphathi.

Ngohlu olubanzi lweziyalezo zezikhulu kusuka kuGeorge Washington kuya kulokhu, vakashela i-American Presadentiency Project ye-database[.

Isiphetho: Ukuqonda Izimiso Zokuqondisa

Iziqondiso zabaqondisi aziyona igebe noma indawo esekela ubushiqela; ziyithuluzi elisekelwe ngokomthetho elasetshenziswa amongameli kusukela ekusungulweni kwerepublic. Amandla abo awaveli kunoma isiphi isigamu esisodwa kodwa ekunikezweni kwegunya eliphethe iSiphakamiso II nasesidingweni esingokoqobo sokuphatha okunempumelelo. Kodwa lawomandla ahlala elawulwa amanye amagatsha.

Kubafundisi, isihluthulelo siwukuthi iziyalezo eziphethe zihlala eqenjini lomthetho, kwezombangazwe, nakomlando. Imfundo ephelele yezakhamuzi akumelwe ihlole nje kuphela ukuthi imiphi imiyalo eshiwoyo kodwa nendlela esetshenziswa ngayo, ibekelwe inselele, futhi ishintshwe ngayo. Ngokuhlola izibonelo ezingokoqobo zaseJapane (jengs) kusukela ekumangeni okudabukisayo kuya ekuvinjelweni kwanamuhla kwezokuhamba.

Kulenkathi yoshintsho olusheshayo kwezombangazwe, ukuqonda indlela iziyalezo eziphethe ezisebenza ngayo embusweni kahulumeni kubaluleke kakhulu kunanini ngaphambili.