Umzabalazo Wokukhululeka Nokuphela Kobugqila

Inhlangano yokuqeda, eyathola amandla ekuqaleni kwekhulu le-19, yafuna ukuqeda ubugqila e-United States. Izazi zezokulwa njengoFrederick Douglas noHarriet Tubman zaba wusizo ekukhuliseni ukuqapha nokusekela amalungelo abantu base-Afrika. Umsebenzi wabo wabeka isisekelo sezinguquko eziyisisekelo ezingokomthetho ezazizoshintsha isizwe.

Frederick Douglas, owayeyisigqila esiholayo futhi esingumbhali, wanyathelisa izincwadi zomlando wamuntu eziningana ezichaza okuhlangenwe nakho kwakhe. UNarrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas, isigqila saseMelika[ (145]) safinyelela izibukeli zezizwe zonke futhi sadalula unya lwenhlangano. uHariet Tubman, ngokwesikhathi, wahola izihambeli eziningi zokukhulula abantu abagqilaziwe nge-ultray Railraound, ebonisa amandla ezenzo eziqondile nesakhiwo senethiwekhi.

Lenhlangano futhi yancika ezinseleleni ezingokomthetho nasekuhlelweni kwezombangazwe. INhlangano yaseMelika elwa ne-Booderry, eyasungulwa ngo-1833, izicelo ezihlangene, izinkulumo, nezincwadi. Nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme ka 1857 [Dred Scott v. Sandford yaphika ukuba isakhamuzi sama-Afrikan America, imbangela yokunqabela ukudlondlobala. Ukhetho luka-Abraham Lincoln ngo-1860, lwalandelwa yiMpi Yomphakathi, lwasungula izimo zokuguqula umthetho.

Imisebenzi Eyinhloko Engokomthetho

  • Ukubekwa kwe-Procturation (1863)[FLT: Yakhishwa nguMongameli Lincoln, lomyalo ophethe wamemezela inkululeko yezigqila ezizweni zeConferate. Nakuba ilinganiselwe ngokushesha, yasusa injongo yempi futhi yavumela ama-Afrika aseMelika ukuba akhonze eButhweni le-Union.
  • Isichibiyeli sesithathu (11865): Ngandlela-nye ubugqila eUnited States yonke, ngaphandle kwesijeziso sobugebengu. Lokhu kulungiswa kwaba umphumela oqondile wezenzo zobuphekula nokunqoba kwe-Union.
  • Isichibiyeli se-14th (168): Ukwethakalisa kubo bonke abantu abazalwa noma abadalwe e-U.S., kuhlanganise nalabo ababeyizigqila, futhi baqinisekisa isivikelo esifanayo ngaphansi kwemithetho. Le-odoct yaba isisekelo samalungelo omphakathi esikhathi esizayo.
  • Isichibiyeli se-15th (11870): saveza ukuncishwa kwamalungelo okuvota ngenxa yohlanga, umbala, noma isimo sobugqila sangaphambili. Nakuba ukuphoqelelwa kwakubuthakathaka eNingizimu cishe iminyaka eyikhulu, kwamisa isimiso somthetho-sisekelo.

Ukuqeda kwalenhlangano kwabonisa ukuthi ukubusa okuqhubekayo kokuziphatha nokubusa kwezombangazwe kunganqoba ukungabi nabulungisa okungokomthetho okugxilile, kodwa umzabalazo wokulingana kweqiniso wawusekude kakhulu.

Ukuhamba Kwabesifazane Ngenkani

Umzabalazo wabesifazane owenyanyekayo walwela ilungelo labesifazane lokuvota, owafinyelela umvuthwandaba ekudluleni kweSichibiyelo se - 19 ngo - 1920. Abaholi abanjengoSusan B. Anthony noElizabeth Cady Stanton bahlela imibuthano yemihlangano, babhala amapheshana, neSishaya - mthetho ukuze balondoloze lelilungelo eliyisisekelo. Lenhlangano yavela embuthweni wenhlangano ehlanganisa abalandeli bokupheliswa kwezwe, njengoba abesifazane abaningi baqaphela ukuthi nabo babengenawo amandla ezombangazwe.

Ngo-1848, i-Seneca Falls Convention yaphawula ukuqala kwenhlangano yamalungelo abesifazane ehleliwe. Isaziso somhlangano se-Sentiments , efanekiswe yiSimemezelo seNdende, sabala izikhalo ngokumelene nemithetho eyayingaphansi kwabesifazane. Emashumini amaningi alandelayo, abashisekeli bempi basebenzisa amasu amaningi: imikhankaso yezinga lesifunda, ukulwa, ukujeziswa, futhi ngezinye izikhathi ukungalaleli komphakathi.

Izenzakalo Ezibalulekile

  • Inhlangano yesizwe yabesifazane i-Loman Suffnge Association (NWSA) ne-American Woman Suffnge Association (AWSA): Lezinhlangano, kamuva zahlanganiswa zahlanganiswa zaba yi-National American Woman Suffnge Association, zihlela imizamo kulo lonke izwe.
  • [ Indawo ye-Wyoming (1869): Igunya lokuqala lokunikeza abesifazane amalungelo okuvota agcwele, ukubekela ezinye izifunda.
  • Isichibiyeli se-1919 (1920)[FLT:]: Ngemva kwamashumi eminyaka empi yomkhankaso noshintsho olubalulekile emphakathini phakathi neMpi Yezwe I, inguquko yagunyazwa. Sathi: “Ilungelo lezakhamuzi zase-United States lokuvota ngeke linqatshwe noma livinjelwe i-United States noma yi-od State ngenxa yobulili.”

Inhlangano yempi ayigcinanga ngokunikeza abesifazane ithuba lokuvota kodwa yamisa nezinqubo zokulingana kwabesifazane esikhathini esizayo. Yabonisa ukuthi ushintsho olungokomthetho lwalungenzeka ngokucindezela okuqhubekayo kotshani nezakhiwo ezihlangene eziqedweni ezihlukene ezizweni nasezigabeni. Impumelelo yeSichibiyelo se - 19 kamuva yabangela ukuba kudingeke iholo elilinganayo, amalungelo okuzala, kanye nesivikelo esingokomthetho ekucwaseni ubulili.

Inhlangano Yamalungelo Omphakathi (1950s1660)

I-Civil Rights Movement of the 1950 no-1960 ihlose ukuqeda ukucwasana ngokohlanga nobandlululo kuma-Afrika. Izinombolo eziyinhloko njengoMartin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, noMalcolm X zavela phakathi nalesikhathi, zikhuthaza ukulingana ngokubhikisha okunokuthula, izinselele ezingokomthetho, futhi kwezinye izimo, ukuthatha izinyathelo ezinamandla. Lenhlangano yasusa isimiso esingokomthetho sokuhlukanisa i-Jim Crow esasesaqhubeka kusukela ekupheleni kwe-Constanton.

Ukunqoba Kwangaphambili Nokugqashuka Okungokomthetho

Ngaphambi kokubhikisha okukhulu ko-1960, iNaACP Legal Defense Fund, eholwa nguThur Good Marshall, yalandela icebo elingokomthetho lokubekela igebe lobuhlanga. Icala lezehlo ngo 1954 Brown v. i-Board of Educa yamemezela ukuthi “ukungalingani kodwa izikole zomphakathi zazingalingani ngokwemvelo, zazigumbuqela Preves v. Ferguson isinqumo.

IMontgomery Bus Boycott ka-1956 yayiyisenzakalo esibalulekile esabonisa amandla esenzo sokubusa. Ngemva kokuba uRosa Park enqabile ukushiya isihlalo sakhe, umphakathi waseMelika wawalahla amabhasi edolobha isikhathi esingaphezu konyaka. Umfana uphelile kuphela lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme inquma ukuthi ibhasi alikho isigaba sobuProfethi. Lokho kubhikisha kwamisa uMartin Luther King Jr.

Umthetho Omkhulu Noshintsho Lomthetho - sisekelo

  • Umthetho weCivil Rights ka 1964: ubandlululo oluthathelwe ekusekelweni kwebala, ibala, inkolo, ubulili, noma umsuka wezwe ezindaweni zomphakathi, umsebenzi, nezinhlelo ezixhaswe uhulumeni. Uhlala ungomunye wemithetho enamandla kakhulu elwa nobandlululo ezweni.
  • Ivoting Rights Act ka-65: Ukuhlola ukufunda nokubhala kanye neminye imikhuba esetshenziselwa ukulahla abantu baseAfrika. Kwadinga amagunya athile nomlando wobandlululo ukuze kuthole imvume kahulumeni ngaphambi kokushintsha imithetho yokuvota ([[FLT:]]] Ukuguqula 5 ukubhalisa ). Lokhu kwenza ukubhalisa amaBlack larver nokuthatha iqhaza kwezombangazwe kwandisa kakhulu ukuvota kwe-mlayd.
  • Umthetho weFair Homes Act ka-1968: ubandlululo oluthathelwe ukuthengwa, ukuqashwa, nokuxhaswa kwezindlu ezisekelwe ohlangeni, enkolweni, ezweni, nasebuhlotsheni, nasekukhubazekeni (kamuva). Lokhu kwalandela ukubulawa kweNkosi uMartin Luther uJr. futhi kwakuyingxenye yomzamo omkhulu wokulungisa ukungalingani kwezimiso ezisezindaweni zokwakha nasezindaweni.

Ifa lale nhlangano liyaqhubeka lithonya izingxoxo zanamuhla zohlanga nokulingana eMelika.

I - LGBTQ+ Inhlangano Yamalungelo

Inhlangano yamalungelo e-LGBTQ iye yalwela ukuqashelwa okungokomthetho nokuvikelwa ekucwaseni. Izenzakalo zephawu njenge-Stonewall Riots ngo-1969 zafaka igalelo lokulingana, okwaholela entuthukweni engokomthetho ephawulekayo phakathi namashumi eminyaka. Ngaphambi kweStonellall, izenzo zobungqingili zaphazanyiswa ngobugebengu emazweni amaningi, futhi abantu ngabanye babhekana nokulahlekelwa umsebenzi, ukuxoshwa, nokuhlukunyezwa amaphoyisa.

Ngemva kwe-Stonewall, i-LGBTQ+ abashisekeli bakha izinhlangano ezinjenge-Gay Liberation Front ne-Human Rights Camper. Basebenzisa amasu ezinhlanganweni zamalungelo omphakathi nakuzo zombuso ezimelene nempi, kuhlanganise nemibhikisho yomphakathi, ukunxusa, nezinselele ezingokomthetho. Ama-1970 abona impumelelo yangaphambili: amanye amadolobha adlula iziqondiso ezingadingeki, neNhlangano yaseMelika yePsychiatric Association yasusa ubungqingili ohlwini lwawo lwezimo zengqondo ngo-1903.

Ukunqoba Okuyinhloko Okungokomthetho

  • LAWREnce v. Texas (2003): INkantolo Ephakeme yashaya imithetho kahulumeni yesodoma, yasusa ubugebengu obufanayo-umsebenzi owengeziwe wobulili ezweni lonke. Lesi sinqumo sagumbuqela icala lika-1986 Bowers v. Hardweck[[ futhi saqinisekisa ilungelo lobusodwa.
  • United States v. Windsor (2013): INkantolo yanquma ukuthi uhulumeni kahulumeni kumelwe aqaphele imishado efanayo-yobulili eyenziwa ngokomthetho ewuvumela. Lokhu kwaqeda ilungiselelo eliyinhloko le-Defense of Marria Act (DOMA).
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) : INkantolo Ephakeme yathi imibhangqwana engokobulili obufanayo inelungelo eliyisisekelo lokushada ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Lesi sinqumo sesibonakaliso senza ukulingana komshado kube umthetho wezwe, ukunqoba okukhulu ngemva kwamashumi eminyaka esenzo sobuProstim.
  • Bostock v. Clayton County (2020)]: INkantolo ePhakeme yanquma ukuthi iSihlomo VII soMthetho wamalungelo omphakathi ka-1964, owenqabela ukucwaswa kobulili emsebenzini, uvikela futhi ekucwaseni okusekelwe ekubukekeni kobulili nasobulili.

Ngaphandle komshado nomsebenzi, lenhlangano iye yasebenzela ukuvikela abantu abangafuni ukungaboni ngaso linye ezindlini, ekunakekeleni impilo, nasezindaweni zomphakathi. Umthetho onjengoMthetho we-Eature (obekwe ngokuphindaphindiwe eKhongomeni) uzama ukuhlanganisa isivikelo esicacile se-LGBTQ+ amaMelika ngokwezinga lombuso.

Inhlangano Engawafuni Amalungelo Ne - ADA

Inhlangano yamalungelo abantu abakhubazekile, eyathola ukubonakala ngawo-1970, yalwa nokuhlukaniswa kwezizwe, ukuhlelwa kwezinhlangano, nokucwaswa. Ukwakha ngamasu ezinhlangano zangaphambili, abashisekeli abakhubazekile kwafuna ukufinyelela imfundo, umsebenzi, izinto zokuhamba zomphakathi, nezakhiwo ezilinganayo. Imizamo yabo yaphumela komunye wemithetho yamalungelo abantu ebanzi kakhulu ezweni.

Izinyathelo Eziyinhloko

  • Ukuhlukanisa 504 kumthetho weRehabilitation Act ka 1973: Ukucwasa kwabhebhethekiswa abantu abakhubazekile ezimisweni ezixhaswa nguhulumeni. Isigaba sango-1977 504 sihlala-ngaphakathi---ne-lide kunazo zonke ezenzeka esakhiweni sikahulumeni saseSan Francisco. /-iphoqelele uhulumeni ukuba asebenzise umthetho.
  • Abantu abanomthetho wemfundo okhubazekayo (IDEA) (1975): baqinisekisa imfundo yomphakathi efanelekile kubantwana abakhubazekile, ukuqinisekisa ukuthi bangafunda ezikoleni ezinkulu ezinezisekelo ezidingekile.
  • AmaMelika ane-ADA Act (ADA) (1990): Ukucwasa kwabekwa imingcele kubantu abakhubazekile emsebenzini, izindawo zomphakathi, ezokuhamba, izinkonzo zikahulumeni wendawo, kanye nezokuxhumana. Isibonelo se-ADA “yokuhlala okunengqondo” nokususwa kwemingcele yokwakha kwamisa indinganiso yomhlaba wonke.
  • Izichibiyelo zomthetho (2008): Yandisa incazelo yokukhubazeka ukuze kubuyiselwe imvuthwandaba walabo ababengachazwanga kahle izinkantolo, iqinisekise ukuthi isivikelo se-ADA sahlala siqinile.

Umzabalazo wamalungelo abantu okhubazekile wawina futhi ukunqoba okubalulekile kweNkantolo Ephakeme, njengokuthi Olmstead v. L.C. (1999), okuthi ukuhlukaniswa okungafanelekile kwabantu abakhubazekile kuphambene ne-ADA. Lesi sinqumo sakhuthaza izinkonzo zomphakathi ezisekelwe ekumisweni.

Amalungelo Omphakathi Omdabu WaseMelika Nobukhosi

Izindawo zamaMelika Omdabu ziye zalwela amalungelo azo kusukela ekutholweni kwekoloni. Ikhulu lama-20 labona ukunqoba okuyinhloko okuphathelene nobukhosi besizwe, ukuzilawula, nokulondolozwa kwamasiko. I-Indian Citizeshiship Act ka-1924 yanikeza amaMelika Omdabu i-U.S. imvume yokuba abe yizakhamuzi, kodwa amazwe amaningi ayesawavimbela ekuvoteleni kuze kube ngawo-1950 noma kamuva.

I-American Indian Movement (AIM) eyakhiwa ngo-1968, igxila emalungelweni esivumelwano, unya lwamaphoyisa, nobulungisa bezomnotho.

Intuthuko Engokomthetho

  • Indian Self-Ditemination and Education Act (1975): Izizwe ezivunyelwe ukunikeza izinhlelo zikahulumeni ezazingalawulwa yiBureau of Indian Affairs, zikhuthaza ukuzilawula.
  • I-Indian Child Welfare Act (1978): Kwakudingeka ukugcina abantwana bomdabu benemikhaya yaboMdabu, kubhekiswe kumkhuba ongokomlando wokususa izingane ezikoleni eziqashisayo noma emakhaya okutholwa okungewona amaNautil.
  • I-Nautive American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990): Izinhlangano zikahulumeni neminyuziyamu zidinga ukubuyisela izidumbu zobuntu boMdabu waseMelika kanye nempahla yempucuko kuhlu lozalo nezizwe.

Eminyakeni yamuva, i-Spig Rock i-(206-2017) eDakota Access Pillel iqokomisa imizabalazo eqhubekayo yokuvikela imithombo yamanzi namazwe esivumelwano, kuyilapho iNkantolo Ephakeme McGirt v. Oklahoma (2020)[FL:1] iqinisekisa ukuthi ingxenye enkulu yempumalanga yeOklahoma ihlala iyizwe lomphakathi we-Melika yezentenadale ngenjongo yokulawula ubugebengu.

Izinhlangano Zangesikhathi Esidlule Nekusasa Lokulingana Ngokomthetho

Naphezu kwentuthuko ephawulekayo, izinselele zisalokhu zikhona ekufuneni ukulingana ngokomthetho. Impikiswano enjengokucindezelwa kwabavoti, unya lwamaphoyisa, nokucwaswa kwemiphakathi ehluzekile iyaqhubeka. Izinhlangano ezintsha ziye zavela ukuze zixazulule lezi zinkinga zesimiso somthetho, ngokuvamile ezakhela ezifundweni ezingokomlando.

Indaba Yokuphila Okumnyama Nokushintsha Kwemikhuba

Iqanjwe ngo-2013 ngemva kokulahlwa kukaGeorge Zimmerman ekudubuleni kukaTraevon Martin, Black Lives Matter (BLM) iye yaba yimpoqo ephambili ekulweni nobudlova bobuhlanga nokuziphatha okubi kwamaphoyisa. Lenhlangano isebenzisa uhlelo lwezinombolo, isenzo esiqondile, nesimiso sokufuna ukuphoqelelwa ukuba kubekwe icala. Ngemva kokubulawa kukaGeorge Floyd ngo-2020, iBLM yasiza ekucindezeleni uMkhandlu ukuba ucabange nge-George Floyd Justice in Policilling Act, nakuba isibalo siving. Izwelo, kanye nezinguquko zendawo, njengokuvinjelwa kwemida, izimfuneko zekhamera, nokungamelelo yequ zibekwe emigatsheni eminingi.

Ukugcizelela kwalenhlangano ekuxhumaneni kwezinhlanga kuyaqaphela ukuthi uhlanga, isigaba, ubulili, nobulili kuhambisana nezimiso zokucindezelwa.

Ukufuna Amalungelo Ekhulu Lama - 21

Ngemva kwesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ka-2013 iShelby County v. Umlawuli we-FLT] wabulala i-Pacture 4 yoMthetho wamaLungelo, onquma ukuthi yiliphi i-oversment edinga imithetho yangaphambi kokuhlelwa, izifunda eziningi ezimiswe imithetho ye-ID evimbelayo, ukuhlola indawo evalwayo, nokususwa kohlungwa komvoti. Amaqembu e-agcota alwa lezinguquko ngezindlela zomgadi we-ocel. I-John Lewis Voing Reties Active Act (Inquisiwe ka-kadensinzinyana) izinhloso zokubuyisela nokuqinisa uhlelo olungaphambili.

Amalungelo Abafuduki Ne - DACA

Inhlangano yamalungelo abantu abavela kwamanye amazwe iye yakhuthaza inguquko ebanzi, izivikelo zeDayers, kanye nokuhlukana kwemikhaya. Uhlelo lweDefered Action for Childhood Agewals (DACA) olusungulwe ngomyalo wezikhulu ngo-2012, luye lwanikeza impumuzo yesikhashana ekudingisweni kwabasanda kuvela kwamanye amazwe abangaphezu kuka-80 000. Izinselele ezingokomthetho eDACA ziyaqhubeka, nabasekeli baleyo mithetho zifuna ikhambiso elihlala njalo.

Lenhlangano ikhuluma nangokuxhashazwa kwezisebenzi, izimo zokuboshwa, nokuthola iseluleko esingokomthetho. Amakhabe phakathi kwabafuduki, abamnyama, namaqembu ezisebenzi aye aqinisa izicelo zesimiso sokufuduka esizimele nesivamile.

Isiphetho

Izinhlangano zamalungelo omphakathi kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika ziye zalulolongela kakhulu uhlelo olungokomthetho lwesizwe, zikhuthaza ukulingana nobulungisa. Inhlangano ngayinye iye yakhela phezu kwempumelelo nezifundo zabanduleli bayo, yakha isiko elicebile lobushiqela eliqhubeka lishukumisa izizukulwane ezizayo. Kusukela ekuqedweni kwezinhlangano zelungelo lokulingana komshado, kusukela kuyi-ADA kuya ekulweni kwanamuhla kwamalungelo okuvota, isigaba somlando sibhekene nobulungisa kuphela ngezenzo eziqhubekayo, izinselele ezingokomthetho, nesibindi sabantu abavamile abafuna ukuphathwa njengezakhamuzi ezigcwele. Ukuqonda lezi zinhlangano akuhloniphi nje kuphela ukuqaphela ukulingana komshado, kodwa kusihlomisela ukuba siqhubeke nomsebenzi wokwakha amalungelo alinganayo, isilinganiso esiphelele.