Isingeniso: Imfundiso Yokungavumelani Nezwe Neziqu Zalo Zokuhlobana

Imfundiso yokuHlanganisa ingeyenye yentuthuko ebaluleke kakhulu eMthethweni waseMelika. Ngochungechunge lwezinqumo ezaqala ngasekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi elinethoba futhi ngokushesha ngemva kwe-New Deal, iNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. “ifake” eziningi zezivikelo eSigqeni samalungelo ezindaweni nge-Century Procession Claus of the 145 Reformation. Lokhu kusho ukuthi inkululeko efana nenkulumo, igcizelela, inkolo, kanye nelungelo lokubopha uhulumeni bendawo manje.

Kodwa indaba yokufakwa kwecala akuyona nje kuphela ewuhulumeni. `Izinkantolo eziphakeme kakhulu' zikahulumeni kuhulumeni ngamunye] izinhlangano zokwahlulela eziphakeme kakhulu esifundazweni ngasinye, zenza indima enamandla, ngokuvamile engagunyazwanga ekulolongeni indlela lawomalungelo aqondwa ngayo, asetshenziswa ngayo, futhi akhuliswe ngayo. Nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. ibeka indawo ephansi yesizwe, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinganikeza isivikelo esiphakeme ngaphansi kwemithetho yazo siqu. Izinqumo zazo zingathonya imfundiso kahulumeni, ziklame amagumbi okuhlola angokomthetho amalungelo ezincwadi, futhi ngezinye izikhathi ziphoqelele iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.

Lesi sihloko sihlola izindlela eziningi zokuthi izinkantolo eziphakeme zithonya i - Incorporation Doctrine, kusukela ekuchazeni isisekelo esizimele sikahulumeni kuya ekubekeni izenzakalo ezidlulela esimisweni sikahulumeni. Sizohlola amacala ayinhloko, izizathu zokwakha lethonya, kanye nokulinganiselwa okugcina ubuhlobo phakathi kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni nezikahulumeni bunamandla kunokuba bugcine i - hierarchin.

Isisekelo Sesakhiwo: Umbuso Wesifunda Nokubusa Kwabo Bonke

Ukuze kuqondwe ukuthi kungani izinkantolo eziphakeme zisho ukuthi impikiswano yeSifundiso sobuzwe sase-America, umuntu kumelwe aqale aqonde ukuhluzeka kwemithetho ye-corporation. I-United States ayisona isimiso sobunye; imibuso iphethe amandla abalulekile okubusa, kuhlanganise negunya lokugcina imithetho yemithetho engokomthetho, imithetho, namasiko avamile. UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., ngeSifereme Claus, umisa umthetho ophakeme wezwe, kodwa imibuso ikhululekile ukunikeza izakhamuzi isivikelo esikhulu kunesidingo soMthetho-sisekelo wezwe uma nje ingawuphuli umthetho - sisekelo womthetho.

Lesi simiso, esivame ukubizwa ngokuthi “izizathu zikahulumeni ezizimele nezifanele,” sivumela inkantolo ephakeme yezwe ukuba isekele isinqumo sayo ngokuphelele emthethweni kazwelonke. Uma inkantolo kahulumeni inquma icala ngezizathu ezizimele, iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. ngokwemvelo ngeke ilibukeze, ngoba akukho mpikiswano kahulumeni enikezwayo. Lokhu kwakha ithuluzi elinamandla lezinkantolo zikahulumeni lokwandisa amalungelo ngaphezu komthetho wezwe ngaphandle kokwesaba ukuwashintsha.

Ngokwesibonelo, ngawo 1970, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaseCalifornia yachaza isigqebhezana somthetho-mfundazwe esiyimfihlo somthetho-mshaphansi wezwe ukuthi inqabela ukuqashelwa kwezindawo ezingemva kwendlu ngaphandle kwemvume (*) ukuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U. ngalesosikhathi, yayingakaqashelwa ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sesine. Lombuso oweqinisiwe awuzange ungqubuzane nomthetho kahulumeni; wanezela ungwengwengwezi olungaphezulu lwesivikelo. Izinqumo ezinjalo zibonisa ukuthi i - Incorporation Doctrine ayiyona imigwaqo ephakeme esuka eWashington iye ezindaweni ezithile. Kunalokho, iyingxoxo lapho izinkantolo zikahulumeni zikhuluma khona kuqala, futhi ngezinye izikhathi kulandela izinkantolo zikahulumeni.

Imithetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni Njengezisebenzi Zokulwela Amalungelo

Isingathekiso sezigodlo ‘ njengezici zentando yeningi,” ezaqanjwa ngoMahluleli uLouis Brandeis, zisebenza ngamandla amakhulu kumalungelo omthetho-sisekelo. Izinkantolo eziphakeme zoMbuso zizama njalo ngezincazelo eziqanjiwe ezithonya umthetho wesizwe kamuva. Lokhu kuyiqiniso ikakhulukazi ezindaweni lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. ibimadolonzima ukwenza noma lapho umbhalo we-Federal Bill of Rights ushiya indawo ebanzi.

Ukwandisa Inkulumo Nesivikelo Sezindaba

Enye indawo lapho izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zasebenza kakhulu yinkululeko yokukhuluma. Nakuba iSichibiyelo sokuqala sibeka indinganiso elinganiselwe, imithetho elandelwayo kahulumeni eminingana iqukethe ulimi oluvikela kakhulu emsebenzini ovezayo. Ngokwesibonelo, isigqebhezana somthetho-mthetho we-Oregon, esithakazelelwa ngo-1857, siye sachazwa yi-Oregon Supreme Court ukuze sinikeze izivikelo ezibanzi zenkulumo engcolileyo nenkulumo engokomfanekiso. Sitegin v. I-Ciannallic [2009], inkantolo yasekela ilungelo lokusakaza izinto ezicacile ngokobulili lezo iU.S. Inkantolo iphethe kakade iziqondiso zayo ngaphansi kwezindinganiso zomthetho kahulumeni. [[FLT] Inkantolo yakha isifunda isifunda semithetho eqinile engenakubhobopha imfundiso yezomthetho.

Ngokufanayo, iNkantolo Yeziphakamiso yaseNew York ngokuvamile iye yathatha umbono omkhulu wokuveza iziphakamiso, ikakhulukazi emacaleni ahilela ukuvinjelwa kwangaphambi kwaphambi kwaphambi kwezisebenzi zomphakathi. Olesik v. Elmsford Union Free School District [2022], inkantolo yasebenzisa ukuhlolwa komthetho-mthetho okuvikela imithombo yezindaba yezenhlalo eqinile kakhulu kunaleyo ukuhlolwa kukahulumeni. Lezi zinqumo aziyishintshi ngokuqondile i-Incorporation Doctrine, kodwa zakha indikimba yesazi sezwe izikhulu zikahulumeni ezithi uma zihlola izinkulumo zikahulumeni.

Ukwandisa Inqubo Yokuba Wedwa Nenqubo Efanele

Imfihlo ingenye indawo lapho izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zahola khona. Umthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. awuphethe ilungelo elicacile lokufihla imfihlo, kodwa iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yakhipha elinye ku-Bhill of Rights. Umthetho-siseko ohlukene, uqukethe izigijimi ezicacile zemfihlo. Umthetho-mgamfa wombuso waseCalifornia, owenziwe ngo-1979, uhlanganisa “ilungelo lokufuna ukufihla imfihlo” ukuthi inkantolo yayo ephakeme itolile ngokunamandla. [ [iiiiiiiibhulov. National Atletic Association [[FLTLT:1] [194], inkantolo yakholelwa ukuthi isebenza kahle ezindaweni zomuntu siqu njengohulumeni, ihamba ngaphezu kwemfuneko ye-Treance . [inxanxanxathelana yemithetho ye-kazwe, kodwa futhi iveza igunya lombuso lokulawula.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zathuthukisa amalungelo iNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. engakawafaki, njengamalungelo emfundo eyanele. Abbott v. Burke [1985]), i-New Jersey Supreme Court yasekela ukuthi umthetho-sisekelo wa Leta wawufuna ukuxhaswa kwesikole okusemthethweni, amazwi athi iNkantolo ephakeme yase-U.S. inqaba ngaphansi kwesivikelo sombuso esilinganayo ku- i-San Antonio Independent School ofs. Rodriguez[773]. Nakuba lendaba ingayikhombanga ngokuqondile i-mgono ye-omgano, ibonisa ukuthi inkantolo ingagcwalisa kanjani izikhala zezwe yi-Judiary.

Indlela Izinqumo Zenkantolo Ephakeme Kahulumeni Eziwuthonya Ngayo Umthetho Wendawo

Ithonya lezinkantolo eziphakeme zesifundazwe kuyi - Incorporation Doctrine alilinganiselwe ekusunguleni izisekelo ezihlukene zikahulumeni. Izinqumo zikahulumeni zingalolonga ngokuqondile incazelo yomthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni ngezinqubo eziningana.

Igunya Elithonyayo Nokuthuthukiswa Kwezindinganiso Zesizwe

Izinkantolo ze-Foderal, kuhlanganise neNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S., zicaphuna njalo imibono yenkantolo njengegunya elikholisayo, ikakhulukazi lapho ilwa nezimpikiswano ezintsha zomthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, imanda v. Arizona[ (1966), iNkantolo Ephakeme yayithembele ezinqumweni zenkantolo zikahulumeni ezazisekelwe kakade izixwayiso zokuhlola. Inkantolo ephakeme yaseCalifornia yabeka isinqumo secala ku- abantu v. UDorado (65) wakholelwa ukuthi iSiphakamiso sesihlanu senkantolo sasifuna ukuba amaphoyisa asole ukuthi amacala awo ahlale ethule aphethe umthetho kaMira. Nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme yabekwa ekugcineni isigaba senkantolo ewusizo.

Ngokufanayo, isinqumo [[QLT:0] sama-mapp v.Oo (1961) (1961) esahlanganisa umthetho ohlukanisayo ngokumelene nezifundazwe, sathonywa ukuhlola kwenkantolo yombuso. Izizwe eziningi zase zithathe kakade imithetho yokuzihlukanisa ngaphansi komthetho-mthetho wazo noma umthetho ovamile, neNkantolo ku yaphawula ukuthi lokhu okuhlangenwe nakho kwabonisa ukusebenza komthetho. Ngakho izinkantolo zezwe zasebenza njengezindawo ezifakazela ukuhlanganiswa kombuso.

Ukubangela Izingxabano Ezikhuthaza Ukubukezwa KweNkantolo Ephakeme

Izinkantolo eziphakeme zikahulumeni zingaphoqelela futhi isandla seNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. ngokuhlukanisa igunya. Uma inkantolo yezwe ichaza ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni ngendlela ephikisana nesandulela seNkantolo Ephakeme ekhona, iNkantolo inganika i-certiori ukuba ixazulule ukungezwani. Ngokwesibonelo, [Hodgefefel v. [20] [20], iNkantolo ePhakathi Ephakeme] kwadingeka ukuba ixazulu ixazulu ixazulu yengxabano phakathi kwezinkantolo ezidlulisa izinkantolo eziphethe inkantolo eziphethe inkantolo ezithiwe kakhulu ezazisekele ukuvinjelwa futhi ziveze izinkantolo eziphakeme (njengeNkakhulu ye-Ceult Courtsment Aurt:2]]"R.[FLD] 2013]) ifunde izivumelwano sazomthetho sazomthetho sifuna ukumiswa. Nakuba izikhulu zikahulumeni sifaka izivumelwano ezingokomthetho.

Muva nje, izinkantolo eziphakeme zikhiphe izinqumo ezimayelana nokuzivikela okufanelekayo, isenzakalo sokufuna ukuboshwa, kanye nezingozi eziphindwe kabili ezibangelwa izindinganiso zikahulumeni.

Ukubeka Izifiso Zesizwe Nge “I - Federalism Entsha”

Phakathi nonyaka ka-1970 nonyaka ka-1980, inhlangano eyayaziwa ngokuthi “iNkantolo Ephakeme yabona izinkantolo eziningi eziphakeme zandisa amalungelo ngokuqhubekayo ngaphezu kweBriger neRehnquist Courts. Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo ePhakamileyo yase-Alaska, yachaza umthetho - sisekelo wayo ukuze inikeze isivikelo esikhulu kakhulu ekuhlolweni kwezimoto ezingenamthetho kunezezezezeze-U.S. iNkantolo Ephakeme evunyelwe ngaphansi kweSiphendulo sesine. Inkantolo ephakeme yase-Oregonbongold ekwandeni ngokufana nemfundiso kahulumeni ezindaweni ezinjengeziqulo zempikiswano nelungelo lokuqulwa kwemithetho. Lezinquluko zakhankambi zasungula indikimba yomthetho womthetho womthetho - ngokomthetho esaba ukubhekiswa kwezazi, i-liggnst. Nakuba iNka kakhulu i-U.

Izibonelo Eziphawulekayo Zethonya LikaHulumeni

Ukuze sibonise umphumela ophawulekayo wezinkantolo eziphakeme ze - Incorporation Doctrine, kuyasiza ukuhlola amacala ambalwa avelele.

INkantolo Ephakeme YaseCalifornia Nelungelo Lokuba Wedwa

Ngo-1972, abavoti baseCalifornia banezela ilungelo elicacile lokufihla i-construct. INkantolo Ephakeme yaseCalifornia yasheshe yanikeza lelilungiselelo. White v. Davis[[FLT:] (1975], inkantolo yasekela ukuthi abantu bebodwa bavikelwe ekuhlolweni kwamaphoyisa ezindaweni ezingenagunya ezingokomthetho ezihlangene. [iNkantolo ephakeme] i-U. iNkantolo Ephakeme yayingabhekisi imvumela ngokuphelele ngaphansi kweSiphetho Sokuqala. Kamuva, [[FLT] VF:].[FFF][5][5] [empela:], inkantolo yasebenzisa umthetho omthetho ukuba kufune isilinganiso esiphezulu semoto ukuze iboshwe [ult] [F] [F] [5] [eg.Nkade]

INkantolo Yokudlulisa Amacala Nezenzo Zobugebengu YaseNew York

Inkantolo ephakeme kakhulu yaseNew York sekuyisikhathi eside ingumshayeli wezinguquko zenqubo yobugebengu. Abantu v.Anderson [77], iNkantolo yokudlulisa iziphakamiso yaseNew York ichaza ilungiselelo lelungelo likahulumeni lokufuna ukuba amaphoyisa ayeke ukubuza ummeli osolwayo, ngisho noma osolwayo kamuva asungula umthetho oqinile kunawomthetho kahulumeni , i-Edwards v. Arizona . (1981). Isinqumo senkantolo sasungula ngokuphumelelayo “umthetho waseNew York” owanikeza isivikelo esikhulu ngokuncitshiswa kwemvume. Lesinqumo asizange sishintshe ngokuqondile [isibonelo esiningana] kodwa sanikezwa ezinye izinkantolo futhi samukela imvume.

INkantolo Ephakeme YaseWashington Namalungelo Emfundo

Isinqumo, esisekelwe eSifundeni semfundo uNo. 1 v State [1988], iNkantolo ePhakeme yaseWashington yasekela ukuthi umthetho-siseko wawufuna ukuba isishayamthetho sifune “senze ilungiselelo elanele lokufundisa zonke izingane.” Lesi sinqumo, esisekelwe kumthetho wemfundo kazwelonke, samisa umsebenzi iNkantolo ePhakeme u-U.S. Beyenqaba ukubeka ngaphansi kweSiphendulo se-Indala. Nakuba ingayiyongabekwanga icala likahulumeni ukuba“ wenze ilungiselelo elanele lokufundisa izingane zonke izingane.” Isinqumo esisekelwe ekufuneni amalungelo esizwe, futhi sithonye igalelo lesikole semfundo yombuso, simise umsebenzi owenqabela ukusekela ukukhokhwazwa kwemali ezweni lonke.

Izinselele Nokulinganiselwa Kwethonya Likahulumeni

Naphezu kwamandla azo aphawulekayo, zisho ukuthi izinkantolo eziphakeme zibhekene nezithiyo zangempela lapho zizama ukubumba i - Incorporation Doctrine.

Imingcele KaKhisimusi NoClaus Oyinqaba

Umngcele osobala kakhulu usendaweni ethile. Inkantolo ephakeme ichaza umthetho-sisekelo wayo kuphela phakathi kwaleso simo. Nakuba ithonya kwezinye izinkantolo, ayinagunya lokumisa isiqalo sesizwe. Ngaphezu kwalokho, uma isinqumo senkantolo yombuso siphikisana ne-U.S. uMthetho-sisekelo njengoba uchazwa yiNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S., isinqumo sikahulumeni asisebenzi ngaphansi kweSiphetho sikaSupremacy Claus. Ngokwesibonelo, uma inkantolo ephakeme ibingasekela ukuthi ukumiswa kuka-Clausle akusebenzi konke esifundazweni (ukuthi kuphambene ne-] V.

Ukucindezela Kwezombangazwe Nezeziqu

Amajaji enkantolo ephakeme yoMbuso ngokuvamile akhethwa noma angaphansi kokhetho olugcinwayo, ewenza abe lula kakhulu ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe kunabahluleli bakahulumeni ababoshwe ukuphila. Lokhu kungaholela ezinqumweni ezivumelana kakhulu nombono womphakathi wendawo kunokuvumelana nomthetho-mthetho wezwe. Ngokwesibonelo, izinkantolo eziningi zikahulumeni ziye zachaza imithetho-mthetho yazo elawulayo evimbela amalungelo kunokuba yandise amalungelo, ikakhulukazi ezindaweni ezinjengokukhishwa kwezisu noma ukulawulwa kwezibhamu. Ngo-201818, i-Io Supreme Court, elawulwa yi-birty insalithane, yabulala umthetho wokukhipha izisu ezivimbelayo ngaphansi kwenqubo yomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko wezwe.

Ingozi ‘ Yokukhululwa Kwezimpahla ’”

Ngisho noma izinkantolo zikahulumeni zandisa isivikelo, iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. ngezinye izikhathi “ingasula” lezo zanda ngokumemezela indinganiso kahulumeni njengesilinganiso esikhethekile. Ngokwesibonelo, Lockyer v. Andrade [2003] [iNkantolo ePhakeme], ikholelwa ukuthi iSiphakamiso seSiphakamiso seSikhulu seSiphakamiso sezwe esivimbela ukuthatha izinkantolo zonya nesijeziso esingavamile ekusebenziseni incazelo eqinile ngaphandle kokuba uhulumeni uthembele kuphela emthethweni wombuso. Loluhlobo lwesitemu sikahulumeni [FLT][FLT] [2003] [intection] [2003] [intetions] [i] [indlela], iNkakhululu lweNkathi yeSime seSigwebo seSigwebo seSigwebo seSigwebo seSigeqe seSimo seSika-Ezi] singalinganisela sokukhipha sokukhipha.

Isiphetho: Ukungenela Okunamandla KoMbuso Nezinkantolo Zesizwe

Izinkantolo eziphakeme zikahulumeni zingaphezu kakhulu kokuba abamukeli abangenzi beNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. Zihlanganyela ngentshiseko ekwakhekeni okuqhubekayo kwe-Incorporation Doctrine. Ngokuchaza imithetho-siseko yombuso yazo, zingandisa amalungelo ngaphezu kwe-sosigeqe, zisungule igunya elithonya izinqumo zikahulumeni, futhi zibangele izingxabano ezishukumisa ukuthuthukiswa komthetho kahulumeni. Ukusuka e-Oregonsteraster kuya eqenjini elikhululekile le-Oregon, izinkantolo zesifundazwe ziye zabonisa ngokuphindaphindiwe ukuthi ukuhlanganisa izingxoxo ze-196362, kodwa inqubo enamandla, inqubo eshukumisayo.

Njengoba kuvela izinselele ezintsha − ezindaweni ezifana nezindawo zomuntu siqu ze-apply, amalungelo okuzala, nenqubo yobugebengu − ngokungangabazeki izinkantolo eziphezulu ziyoqhubeka zihlola imingcele yokusebenzisa i-computer. Izinqumo zazo ziyoba njengezindawo zokucwaninga, izimpawu ezixwayisayo, futhi ngezinye izikhathi izipulani zengxoxo yesizwe. Kubafundi bomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo, ukuqonda indima yezinkantolo zikahulumeni kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuthi iBhill of Rights isebenza kanjani ngempela ezindaweni ezingamashumi amahlanu.

[[UMTL:0] ukuze uqhubeke ufunda, bheka:[[Umthetho:1]