Table of Contents
Ohulumeni boMbuso kulo lonke elase-United States bancike kumthetho-sisekelo wabo njengegunya eliyinhloko lokusebenza kwazo zonke izinqumo nomthetho. Le zincwadi eziyisisekelo zimisa uhlelo phakathi kwezikhulu zikahulumeni, zichaza imingcele yamandla kahulumeni futhi zivikela amalungelo ezakhamuzi. Ukuqonda ubuhlobo obuyinkimbinkimbi phakathi kwemithetho-sisekelo kahulumeni kanye nokwenza izinqumo zikahulumeni kunikeza ukuqonda okubalulekile ngokuthi i-American sobuzwelonke isebenza kanjani ezingeni lombuso.
Indima Eyisisekelo Yomthetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni
Imithetho - sisekelo kahulumeni ngokuvamile inemininingwane eminingi kakhulu kuneminye yayo kahulumeni, enoMthetho - sisekelo wase - Alabama oqukethe amagama angu - 310 296 (amagama) aphindwe izikhathi ezingaphezu kuka - 40 kunemithetho - sisekelo yase - United States. Lelizinga lemininingwane libonisa isimo esibanzi sokubusa komthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni nesimiso esiqondile esithinta izincwadi zawo zesisekelo.
Bonke ohulumeni bamiswa njengohulumeni kahulumeni ophethe futhi bakhiwa ngamagatsha amathathu: isikhulu, i-progin, ne-castival. Nokho, abenzi bomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wezwe baye baneliswa ukulandela isibonelo sikahulumeni ngokuphathelene nezinhlu ezibanzi zokuhlukaniswa kwesimiso sombuso, kuyilapho beveza futhi izinguquko eziphawulekayo ezibonisa isiko lezombangazwe eliyingqayizivele lombuso ngamunye nentuthuko engoko.
Izakhiwo Zegatsha Ezingokomthetho Nemithetho Yomthetho - sisekelo
Ngaphandle kwesifundazwe esisodwa, iNebraska, zonke izifunda ezinesishaya-mthetho se-bamaral esenziwe ngamagumbi amabili: indlu engaphezulu encane nendlu ephansi kakhulu. Umklamo womthetho-sisekelo wezishaya-mthetho uveza ukukhetha kwamabomu ngenqubo yomthetho. Igumbi elincane eliphezulu libizwa ngokuthi iSigeqe, futhi amalungu aso ngokuvamile asebenzisa amagama amade, ngokuvamile iminyaka emine, kuyilapho igumbi eliphansi kakhulu libizwa ngokuthi iNdlu yabameli, kodwa amanye amazwe alibiza ngokuthi iNdludo noma iNdlu noma iNdlukazi Yezi Ababengi, futhi amalungu avame ukunikeza izinkulumo ezimfutshane, ngokuvamile iminyaka emibili.
Imithetho-mthetho yoMbuso inemigoqo eminingi enqubweni yomthetho kunaleyo etholakala eMthethweni woMyalweni. Lemigoqo yavela ezinkathazweni ezingokomlando ngokuphathelene nokuphambana kwemithetho nenkohlakalo. Phakathi nekhulu leshumi elinethoba, abenzi bomthetho-mthetho bamukela amalungiselelo alawula inqubo yokwenza imithetho, ngokufuna ukuba izikweleti zifundwe kathathu futhi ziqukethe isihloko esisodwa esichazwe ngokunembile esibekwe esihlokweni futhi zingasetshenziswa embusweni ezindaweni ezithile.
Ngaphezu kwalokho, ngenxa yokuthi ohulumeni bombuso banemvume, kunokuba babe nemingcele, amagunya, abenzi bomthetho-mthetho kahulumeni ngokuvamile bavimbela izishaya-mthetho ukuba zisebenze ezindaweni lapho zazibhekwa njengezingakwazi ukusebenza kahle, kuholele ekuvinjelweni kokusebenza kwemidlalo yemidlalo, ekufakeni imali ezinhlanganweni ezizimele, ukuboleka isikweletu sikahulumeni, nokugunyaza isikweletu esingaphezu kwesivamile. Lokhu kulinganiselwa komthetho-sisekelo kuhlela ngokuqondile indlela izishaya-mthetho ezinquma ngayo izinqumo ngomthetho nempahla ehlawulwayo.
Amandla Amagatsha Aphethe Negunya Lomthetho - sisekelo
Igatsha eliphethe ohulumeni bakahulumeni bezwe liye lashintsha kakhulu kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika. Ekuqaleni, labo ababephethe ukuhlelwa komthetho-mthetho kahulumeni bazama ukuvimbela noma yiliphi ithuba lobushiqela obuphetheyo ngokusungula ihhovisi eliphethe elingcono kakhulu kunohulumeni. Lokhu kwabonisa ukungathembani amandla aphezulu agxilileyo.
Nokho, ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, imithetho-mthetho yombuso iye yanikeza ababusi amandla anele. Zonke izifundazwe manje zinikeza ukubukwa kwe-gabernonarial tratito futhi ziqaphela amandla okuhlola ukwahlulela. Lamagunya omthetho-sisekelo avumela ababusi ukuba bahlanganyele ngentshiseko enqubweni yomthetho-mthetho futhi basebenze njengesehlo ekwenzeni izinqumo zomthetho-mthetho. Lapho ababusi besebenzisa amandla abo, bathembela egunyeni lomthetho-mthetho ukuba benqabe umthetho abakholelwa ukuthi ungqubuzana nezimiso zomthetho-mthetho-mthetho noma isimiso somphakathi esiqinile.
Incazelo Yegatsha Lokwahlulela Nomthetho - sisekelo
Amagatsha okwahlulela kahulumeni ngokuvamile aholwa inkantolo ephakeme yezwe, ezwa izikhalo ezinkantolo zikahulumeni ezisezingeni eliphansi. Izinkantolo nezinqumo zokwahlulela/ izahlulelo zinqunywa ngemithetho noma ngomthetho-mthetho. Lomthetho sisekelo umisa indlela izinkantolo zikahulumeni ezichaza futhi zisebenzise ngayo amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo emacaleni athile nasezimpikiswaneni ezithile.
Izahlulelo ezenziwa ezinkantolo eziphakeme ezisesifundazweni ngokuvamile ziyabopha; nokho, lapho kuphakanyiswa imibuzo ngokuphathelene nokuvumelana noMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., izindaba zingadluliswa ngokuqondile eNkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States. Lokhu kwakha isimiso somthetho - sisekelo esilawulayo lapho izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinegama lokugcina ezindabeni zomthetho-sisekelo ngaphandle kokuba izindaba zomthetho sisekelo zikahulumeni zihileleke.
Ubuhlobo Phakathi KoMbuso Nomthetho - sisekelo Wesifunda
Ukuqonda indlela ohulumeni bombuso abasebenzisa ngayo imithetho-sisekelo yabo kudinga ukuqaphela isimiso somthetho-sisekelo esimbaxambili esikhona eMelika esisebuthweni obuhlangene. Ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi kuMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., yonke imibuso enganikezwanga uhulumeni kahulumeni igcinelwe imibuso nabantu.
Nakuba izifunda kumelwe, ngokweqiniso, njalo zivumelane nezindinganiso zomthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni, nazo zinemithetho-mthetho kahulumeni wazo. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zikhululekile ukuchaza lezizigijimi ukuze zinikeze isivikelo esingaphezulu kunamagama azo angokomthetho kahulumeni. Lesimiso sokuchaza umthetho-sisekelo ozimele sivumela amazwe ukuba anikeze isivikelo esikhulu samalungelo abantu kunokuba kufunwa nguMthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni.
INkantolo Ephakeme yaseU.S. iye yanquma ukuthi isithakazelo sokufana asiyidluli isimiso esivamile sokuthi amaZwe ayizibonda ezizimele ezinegunya lokuzenzela nokusebenzisa imithetho yawo siqu uma nje engaphulani eziqinisekisini zomthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni, iphawula ukuthi ukungavumelani nomthetho - sisekelo kuyinto engenakugwenywa esimisweni sikahulumeni. Lomthetho wesisekelo wenza ukuba kusungulwe izindlela ezihlukile zokulawula ezibonisa izindinganiso nezidingo zendawo.
Isivikelo Somthetho - sisekelo Kahulumeni Esingaphezu Kwezindinganiso Zomphakathi
Umthetho-mthetho-sisekelo woMbuso − umkhuba wezinkantolo zikahulumeni ukunquma amacala ezisekelo ezizimele zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni, qha imfanelo ebalulekile kodwa engathuthukiswanga kakhulu ye-unistism yaseMelika, nesimiso sokubusa okumbaxambili esiqinisekisa amandla ezinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba zichaze imithetho yazo siqu yokunikeza isivikelo esikhulu samalungelo abantu kunomthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni. Uma zikwenza kanjalo, izinqumo zazo azinakubukezwa yizinkantolo zikahulumeni ezingekho endabeni kahulumeni.
Lenkululeko ivumela ohulumeni bombuso ukuba benze izinqumo ezisekelwe emasikweni nasemithethweni yabo siqu engokomthetho-mthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, izinkantolo eziphakeme ezisemigadeni eyishumi ngaphambili ziye zanquma ukuthi imithetho - sisekelo yabo yombuso ivikela amalungelo okukhishwa kwezisu ngaphansi kwamalungiselelo akhona, ebonisa indlela ukuchazwa komthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni okungahluka ngayo ezindinganisweni zikahulumeni ukuze kunikeze isivikelo esengeziwe.
Indlela Umthetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni Oqondisa Ngayo Isinqumo Sansuku Zonke Sikahulumeni
Umthetho-mthetho kahulumeni uthonya ukwenza izinqumo zikahulumeni nganoma iliphi izinga, kusukela ekukhetheni kwezimiso eziphezulu kuya ezinzweni zokuphatha ezivamile. AmaMelika amaningi axhumana kakhulu nsuku zonke nohulumeni bawo nendawo kunanohulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni, neminyango yamaphoyisa, imitapo, nezikole, kungasaphathwa amalayisense omshayeli namathikithi okupaka izimoto (ngokuvamile ayawa ngaphansi kokuqondisa kukahulumeni nohulumeni bendawo.)
Incazelo Yezinhlangano Nezomthetho - sisekelo
Njengezinhlangano zikahulumeni, izinhlangano zikahulumeni zinamandla okukhipha imithetho nokufushanisa izindaba ezicini eziningi, njengokulondeka kwezenhlalo, ukunakekelwa kwempilo nendawo ezungezile. Izinhlangano zikahulumeni ziwachaza njalo amasiko ombuso noMthetho - sisekelo waseU.S. emsebenzini wazo wansuku zonke, njengalapho zihlaziya inqubo efanele lapho zinikeza izinzuzo noma zichaza izimiso zokuVumisa Izehlakalo Zokuqala ekuqondiseni izimali.
Lomthetho-sisekelo olawulayo umelela isici esibalulekile kodwa esivame ukunganakwa sendlela ohulumeni bombuso abasebenzisa ngayo imithetho yabo ekwenzeni izinqumo. Ukuhlola ukusebenzelana kwezinhlangano zikahulumeni nezimiso zomthetho-sisekelo kungakhanyisa kabusha ekwenzeni izinqumo kwezinhlangano zikahulumeni. Izinhlangano zikahulumeni kumelwe zisebenzise izimfuneko zomthetho-sisekelo lapho zisebenzisa izimfuneko zemithetho yomthetho lapho zifeza izimfuneko zomthetho nokusabela ezidingweni zomphakathi, zidala isimo esiyinkimbinkimbi lapho izimiso zomthetho ngokomthetho ziqondisa khona ukusebenza.
Ukubambisana Komthetho Nomthetho
Lapho izishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni zicabangela imithetho emisha, ukugcinwa komthetho-mthetho kuyinto eyinhloko. Ukuze umthetho usebenze, kumelwe uvumelane nezimiso zomthetho-mthetho. Lokhu kusho ukuthi abashaya izishayamthetho, iziluleko zemithetho, nezisebenzi zamakomiti zihlaziya njalo izikweletu ezihlongozwayo ukuze ziqiniseke ukuthi aziphuli amalungiselelo omthetho - sisekelo.
Umthetho - sisekelo woMbuso uvame ukuqukethe iziqondiso ezithile ezilawula ukunquma kwemithetho. Phakathi neshumi leminyaka elidlule labavoti kwezinye izifundazwe baye banquma ukuhlanganisa ukubuyiselwa okwengeziwe komthetho-mthetho kahulumeni ukuba bagunyaze insangu, uvumele ukuzibulala kodokotela, ukuvimbela ukusetshenziswa kwezinja ekuzingeleni amabhere namabhubesi asezintabeni, ukuvikela ilungelo lokuqoqa izinhlobo ezithile zemali edliwayo, ukwandisa ingxenye yemali kahulumeni ebekelwe imfundo, ukukhipha isisu, ukwandisa intela kagwayi, ukwandisa iholo elilinganiselwe, ukulinganisela noma ukwandisa izinga lentela nentela, phakathi kwezinye izinto.
Lamalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo agunyaza noma enqabela ngokuqondile izenzo ezithile zikahulumeni, ashiye izishayamthetho ezingenakho ukunquma ukuba ziphambuke ezimfunekweni zomthetho-mthetho. Lokhu kubonisa indlela imithetho-sisekelo kahulumeni engasebenzi ngayo njengesisekelo sesimiso sikahulumeni kodwa njengezincwadi zezimiso ezilawulayo ezihlela ukwenziwa kwesinqumo ngokuqondile sikahulumeni.
Iziqondiso Eziphethe Nemingcele Yomthetho - sisekelo
Nokho, lezi zenzo zobuphathi kumelwe zivumelane nokulinganiselwa komthetho ngokomthetho emandleni ombuso. Umthetho - sisekelo woMbuso udweba amandla athile okuphatha kuyilapho usungula nezinqumo zegunya eliphetheyo ngokuqondisa nokwahlulela.
Lapho ababusi bekhipha iziyalo zezikhulu, kumelwe baphawule igunya elingokomthetho noma elingokomthetho elisekela izenzo zabo. Lemfuneko iqinisekisa ukuthi ukwenza izinqumo eziphethe kuhlala kusekelwe ezimisweni zomthetho-sisekelo kunokusebenzisa amandla okuzisebenzela. Izinkantolo zihlola njalo izenzo zezikhulu zokunquma ukuthi badlula yini imingcele yomthetho-sisekelo, zinikeza i-ethernacium ekuhleleni izinqumo eziphethe.
Inqubo Yesichibiyelo Somthetho - sisekelo Nokwenza Imisebenzi Yesinqumo
Imithetho-mithetho kahulumeni yimibhalo ephilayo eshintsha ngezinqubo ezingokomthetho. Kulula kakhulu ukuguqula imithetho-sisekelo kahulumeni kunomthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni, oye waphumela ezinguquko eziphawulekayo ezingokomthetho ezivamile ezingeni lombuso. Isilinganiso sezinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo kazwelonke singu-15, ngaphezulu kakhulu kwengu-7 ye-U.S. ukulungiswa komthetho-sisekelo.
Kusukela ngo- 2006 kuya ku-2024, kwahlongozwa ingqikithi yezinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo ezingu-1 244 futhi zabekwa phambi kwabavoti, futhi abavoti bavuma u-891 ohlongozwayo ukuba kwenziwe izinguquko ezingokomthetho-sisekelo. Lelizinga eliphakeme lokulungisa umthetho-sisekelo libonisa ukubusa okunamandla komthetho-sisekelo kazwe kanye nokusabela kwemithetho-sisekelo kahulumeni ekushintsheni izimo zezenhlalo, zezomnotho, nezezombangazwe.
Izindlela Zokuchithwa Komthetho - sisekelo
Kunezindlela ezine zokulungisa okuhlongozwayo okungokomthetho okungahlongozwa futhi kufakwe emaphephani omgunyathi ezigomweni eziningi: ngezinguquko zomthetho - sisekelo ezibhekiswe ezingokomthetho, ngezinguquko ezimisiwe zomthetho - sisekelo ezibekwe phezu kwencwadi yokuvota ngesicelo sosayinwa sezakhamuzi (izifundazwe ezingu - 8 zivumela lendlela yokulungisa), ngemihlangano engokomthetho, nangezinye izindawo, amavolovoti azenzakalelayo avumela abantu ukuba banqume ngezikhathi ezithile ukuthi babambe umhlangano yini.
IziNguqulo zomthetho-mthetho ezibekwe ngokwemithetho-mthetho: Imithetho iyadingeka ukuba ifune imvume yomvoti ukuze ilungise imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni kumazwe angu-49 kwamashumi amahlanu, iDelaware iyizwe elilodwa lapho imvume yabavoti ingafuneki khona ekulungiseni ukumiswa kwemithetho-mthetho-mthethweni. I-United States inemithetho ehlukene nezinqubo zokulungisa imigaqo-mthetho-siseko engazibuyisela khona i-oblot, ngezinguquko ezintathu eziyinhloko: inani lezimiso zokuhlela izinqumo zemithetho emele ukuvota e-mthethweni e-mthethweniswa-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho; ubungakanani bokuvota egumbini egumbini ngalinye, njengo-50%, 6%,6%,666666.6667.
Ngokwesibonelo, eCalifornia, amalungu amabili-mithathu egumbi ngalinye le-California Legislature kumelwe ahlongoze ukubuyiselwa, okuthi khona - ke kuqhubeke kufakwa isibhamu sezwe lonke ukuze sigunyazwe noma senqatshwe abavoti bakahulumeni. Ngokuphambene, indlela elula kakhulu yokuvumela ukubuyiselwa kwemithetho ukuvunyelwa kwemvume yamavoti ngenhlangano eyodwa yeningi ekhona ezindaweni eziyishumi.
Izigwegwe zomthetho-mthetho ofunyaniswe: Izifundazwe eziyishumi nanhlanu zivumela izakhamuzi ukuba ziqale iziphetho zomthetho-sisekelo, kanye nabasekeli be-collet baqoqa izimemo zezicelo ngenani elithile elincane labavoti ababhalisiwe esizweni. I-Arizona ne-Oklahomas bamisa ibha ephakeme kakhulu, ifuna abasekeli ukuba baqoqe izisayino ezilingana namaphesenti ayi-15 amavoti aphonswe kukhetho lokugcina umbusi, kuyilapho amanye amazwe amisa uhlu lwemikhawulo ephansi, ngokumisa ibhandezo eliphansi kakhulu, ifuna abaxhasi ukuba bathole izigqhinga ezilingana namaphesenti amathathu amavoti ahlukene aphoswe kukhetho lokuvota okokugcina.
Kuzo zonke kodwa kungokodwa lapho inqubo yokuthatha isinyathelo kuqala yomthetho-sisekelo ikhona khona, abashaya imithetho abakwazi ukwenza indima yokugcina isango ngokuvimbela isakhamuzi esinendawo ukuba sibonakale kuyi-collet. Lenqubo yentando yeningi eqondile ivumela izakhamuzi ukuba ziyeke ukumelana nomthetho-mthetho futhi zilungise ngokuqondile imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni, ngokuyisisekelo zishintshe uhlelo lapho izinqumo zikahulumeni zenziwa khona.
Imihlangano ye-Constitution: Imihlangano yoMbuso engokomthetho-sisekelo yake yabizwa njalo, noma ngabe ihlela imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni yokumisa noma ukubuyisela, ukubukeza, noma ukwamukela izinguquko ezihlukene emithethweni ekhona, nengqikithi yemihlangano engu- 250 yomthetho-sisekelo eqhutshwa ezizweni ezingu-50 kusukela ngo1776 kuya ku 1986. Nokho, akuyona ingqungquthela egcwele yonke eye yaba khona kusukela emhlanganweni weRhode Island ka 1986.
Lokhu kubonisa ukuma kokungasabeli kwabantu emihlanganweni emikhulu, futhi amaqembu esithakazelo afuna ngokungenakugwenywa ukuthonya izihambeli ezihlangene, ukwenza izinguquko eziphephandabeni zazo zesisekelo. Naphezu kwalokhu kwehla, imihlangano iyaqhubeka inikeza indlela engenzeka yokulawula imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni, nemihlangano ngokuvamile ebizelwa abashaya imithetho, okudingeka ukuba ivume ukuthunyelwa kwemvume yomhlangano, nevoti enkulu edingeka ukuba ibize imvume yomhlangano ezindaweni eziningi futhi ikhiphe ivoti yemithetho edingekayo kwamanye amazwe, futhi kuwo wonke amazwe kodwa ambalwa, ikhomba ukubizwa kwengqungquthela yomhlangano kumelwe iholwe futhi ivunyelwe yiningi yabavoti.
Ikhomishane ye-consitunications: Ikhomishane ngayinye yombuso nendima namalungu ayo kuyahluka ngokweyamanye amazwe, kodwa ngokwesiko imelela iqembu lochwepheshe abamiswe, ngokuvamile ngumphathi-ndlu yomthetho-mthetho nomphathi, ukubukeza umthetho-mthetho-mthetho futhi unikeze izinguquko ezihlongozelwe kumphathi wendlu yomthetho-mthetho-mthetho noma ukulungiselela umhlangano wezomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho. Uma amalungu ebhekwa njengangakhethangandlu ye-nkampane, ikhomishane ingaphumelela; izishayamthetho zokuhlela iziphakamiso zicabangela ngokucophelela uma isibopho sokungagcotshwa, esingahlukaniswa, esingathathwanga ngokwezimo-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho.
Izimfuneko Zokuhlunga Nezokwakha Imali
Umbuso ngamunye kodwa uDelaware ufuna ukuba abavoti bathathe i-rafyd i-afyment ehlongozwayo yomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mgaqo wezwe − ishintshela kumthetho-sisekelo kazwelonke. Nokho, izimfuneko eziqondile zomvoti ziyahluka kakhulu ezizweni. Izifundazwe eziningi zidinga abavoti abaningi kuphela ukuze bavumele izinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo, kodwa ezinye izifunda zibeka imigoqo ephakeme.
Ngokwesibonelo, iFlorida idinga ukuphumelela okukhulu kwamaphesenti angu-60 evoti ukuze kudlule inguquko esikhundleni senani elikhulu. I-Nevada idinga izinguquko ukuze ivunyelwe okhethweni oluvamile olulandelanayo ukuze ibe umthetho. Lezi zimfuneko ezikhudlwana zibonisa ukukhetha ngamabomu ukwenza ushintsho lomthetho-sisekelo lube nzima, ziqinisekisa ukuthi izinguquko zisekelwa kakhulu futhi zigcinwe umphakathi ngaphambi kokuba zibe ingxenye yomthetho oyisisekelo.
Ukuziphendukela Okungokomlando Kwesinqumo Somthetho - sisekelo Kahulumeni
Imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni iye yazivelela kakhulu kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika, ibonakalisa ukushintsha kwamafilosofi ezombangazwe nokusabela ezinseleleni ezithile ezingokomlando. Imithetho-mthetho yombuso yokuqala, eyamukelwa ngawonyaka ka-1770 nangonyaka ka-1780 ngaphambi kokuhlelwa komthetho-sisekelo kazwelonke, yayiyindaba yokubukezwa okusakazeke kakhulu phakathi nenkathi kaJackson, njengoba abenzi bomthetho-mthetho-mthetho babefuna ukulinganisela ukweqisa kwemithetho engokomthetho futhi bevumela abantu ukuba badlale indima eqonde kakhudlwana ekubuseni.
Inkathi eqhubekayo yayiyisenzakalo sokubukeza okungokwezinqubo zomthetho - sisekelo, njengoba izihambeli zomhlangano wesifundazwe kulo lonke izwe zazifuna ukunciphisa amandla ezitimela nezithakazelo zezinhlangano enqubweni yezombangazwe. Lentuthuko engokomlando ibonisa indlela imithetho-sisekelo yombuso eye yasebenza ngayo njengethuluzi lokusingatha izinselele eziqondile zokubusa nokusebenzisa izinguquko zezombangazwe.
Ukuthuthuka Komthetho - sisekelo Kahulumeni Wakuqala
Imithetho-mithetho kahulumeni yokuqala yabonisa ukukhathazeka kobushiqela ngemibuso kahulumeni ephakeme. Ezimweni eziningi amasiko amakoloni ayaqhubeka, kodwa ashintshwa, ukuze umbusi (umphathi) alahlekelwe amandla abalulekile, kuyilapho imihlangano (igatsha lezemithetho, elalimelela abantu ngokuqondile) yayibaluleke kakhulu.
Ezinye izifundazwe zamukela amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo anzima kakhulu. Umthetho-sisekelo wePennsylvania ka-1776 waqeda izimfuneko zezinto zokuvota kanye nokuba nesikhundla, ukuvumela amadoda amadala akhokha izintela ukuba avote noma ngisho asebenzele isikhundla, okwakuwukwanda okuphawulekayo kwalowo owayebhekwa njengomuntu wezombangazwe. iPennsylvania yaba futhi uhulumeni "owesifundazwe" lapho isishaya ngokomthetho sasinendikimba eyodwa kuphela, futhi ihhovisi lombusi lasuswa ngokuphelele.
Ukusungulwa kwemihlangano engokomthetho - sisekelo njengezindlela zokushintsha komthetho - sisekelo kwamelela ukusungulwa okubalulekile kokubusa ngentando yeningi. Umqondo womhlangano okhethekile wabantu wokunquma izindaba ezibalulekile zomthetho - sisekelo wawuyingxenye yokucabanga okusha ngomthetho othandwayo ozofeza indima eyinhloko ekufunyanisweni koMthetho-sisekelo wezwe ngo - 1787 -788. Umqondo womhlangano washintsha kakhulu ukwenza izinqumo zomthetho sisekelo.
Inqubo Eyisisekelo Ewumthetho Womthetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni
Kusukela eminyakeni yokuqala yeRepublic, izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zaqaphela inqubo efanele ewuhlobo olubili, zincike njalo ezimisweni ezihambelanayo zenqubo yombuso, kanye nemibono ehlobene kakhulu namalungelo angagunyazwanga ($*) nokuphoqelela imingcele emandla omthetho-mthetho. Isici esingaphansi kwenqubo efanele akuyona inqubo yomthetho kahulumeni, kodwa isici esigxilile somthetho-mthetho-sisekelo kazwe.
Izithiyo ezintathu ezihlobene nezimfundiso ezithiwa amandla omthetho ezingokomthetho zavela emacaleni agunyaziwe angokomthetho: okokuqala, okuwumthetho owenziwe ngokusemthethweni — okusho ukuthi, ukuncishiswa kwamalungelo empahla angaphambili − kwakungavunyelwa kakhulu, nakuba isishaya-mthetho sasingathatha indawo yangasese ukuze sisetshenziswe umphakathi uma ikhokhela abanikazi; okwesibili, ukuncishwa kwemithetho engokomthetho kwakuvunyelwa kuphela ukuba kubekwe imithetho evamile. Lezimiso zomthetho-sisekelo zamisa imingcele ebalulekile ekutheni ohulumeni bangazenza kanjani izinqumo ezithinta amalungelo empahla nenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye.
Izinkinga Zangesikhathi Esidlule Ekwakheni Kwesinqumo Somthetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni
Izinguquko zamuva zomthetho - sisekelo zibonisa ukuthi izimpikiswano ezinkulu ezidingidwa ngokushintsha komthetho - sisekelo, kusukela ekuvikelweni kwamalungelo abantu kuya ekuhlelweni kwezimiso zikahulumeni nezinqubo ezizokhethwa.
Isivikelo Somthetho - sisekelo Kamuntu Ngamunye Nesizwe
Nakuba imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni ingenakuwephula amalungelo anikezwa nguMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., angawavikela amalungelo engeziwe. Lesi simiso siye saholela ekubeni amazwe athathe izinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo ezikhuluma ngezindaba eziningi zamalungelo. ECalifornia, eVermont, naseMichigan, abavoti abadlulisi, izinyathelo ezizonezela amalungelo okuzala ekwakheni umthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wombuso, eziwenza abe yizimo zokuqala ukwenza kanjalo, nakuba izifunda zikahulumeni eziyinhloko ezisezingu 10 ziye zanquma ukuthi imibuso yazo engokomthetho ivikela amalungelo okukhishwa kwezisu ngaphansi komthetho okhona.
Abavoti baseMichigan bavuma ukuhlelwa komthetho-sisekelo okunezela "ilungelo eliyindinganiso lokuvota" kumthetho-sisekelo wezwe, eliphoqelelwa izinkantolo zikahulumeni, kanye nezimiso eziningana ezinweba ukufinyelela kovoti, kuhlanganise nokumisa ilungelo lokungena okungenani ezinsukwini ezingu-9 ngaphambi kokuvota, futhi lifuna ukuba ibhola lokwenza amabhokisi nezitembu ezikhokhelwa kusengaphambili ezinikezwa uhulumeni. La malungiselelo angokomthetho amise indlela imibuso esebenzisa ngayo ukhetho futhi ivikele amalungelo okuvota.
I-Nevada yaba umbuso wamuva wokwamukela iSichibiyelo samalungelo alinganayo sikahulumeni, ihlanganisa nezinye izifunda ezingu-7 ezineziphendu ezibanzi zamalungelo abantu noma ezinye izilungiselelo zokulingana kwabobulili obubo. Lezi sivikelo zomthetho ngokomthetho zimisa amalungelo aphoqelelwe aqondisa ukwenza izinqumo zikahulumeni ezihlanganisa izindawo eziningi zezimiso.
IziNguqulo Zomthetho - sisekelo Ezingokwesakhiwo Nezinqubo
Izindaba ezihlanganisa izombangazwe zikahulumeni zingase zikwenze kubonakale sengathi izinguquko eziningi zomthetho ngokomthetho ziletha ukukhathazeka okukhulu emphakathini nasezindabeni zokuziphatha eziphikisanayo, kodwa ngokuphambene nokubonakala kwenani elikhulu lezinguquko zikahulumeni eziye zamiswa azizange zikhange ukunakekela komphakathi ovamile, cishe nezinguquko ezimbili kwezintathu zalo lonke izwe ezabekwa eminyakeni yamuva nje eziphathelene nezimpikiswano ezinjengombuso nezimiso zikahulumeni wendawo nezikweletu, imisebenzi yezezikhungo zikahulumeni, futhi kunalokho intela yentela yezezimali nemithetho yezezimali yomphakathi.
Le mithetho yokulungisa ingathola ukunakekela komphakathi kodwa ithonya eliphawulekayo endleleni ohulumeni bombuso abazenza ngayo izinqumo. Amalungiselelo oMthetho-sisekelo alawula izinqubo zemali, izikweleti, kanye negunya lezinhlangano linqanda ngokuqondile ukuhlelwa kwezimiso zikahulumeni nokwakheka kwezimiso. Ngokwesibonelo, imingcele yezikweletu zomthetho-sisekelo idinga ukuba ohulumeni bezwe bahlele imali edingekayo futhi benze ukukhetha okunzima mayelana nokunikezwa kwezimpahla ngaphansi kwemingcele engokomthetho.
Ukukhetha Ubuqotho Nobuqondisi Bomthetho - sisekelo
Inkulumo - mpikiswano ephathelene nokuthembeka kokhetho iye yadlondlobala yaqala phambili enkulumweni yezombangazwe yaseMelika ezikhathini zamuva, enemithetho - sisekelo kahulumeni, ngokuvamile ebhekwa njengesisekelo sokubusa kwendawo, enikeza uhlelo lokusingatha lezizinkathazo. Amalungiselelo omthetho - sisekelo woMbuso abusa abaphathi bokhetho, izimfuneko zomvoti, nezinqubo zokukhetha zimisa uhlelo olungokomthetho izikhulu ezikhethayo ezizenza phakathi kwazo izinqumo.
Izinguquko zamuva zomthetho-sisekelo ziye zakhuluma ngezici ezihlukahlukene zesimiso sokhetho. I-Michigan yokulungisa idinga ukuba zonke izinqumo zokhetho ziqhutshwe yizikhulu zokhetho obala futhi zigunyaze ukuthi imiphumela yokhetho kumelwe iqinisekiswe kuphela ngokusekelwe erekhodini elingokomthetho lamavoti agunyaziwe. Lezi zimfuneko zomthetho-sisekelo zilawula ngokuqondile indlela izikhulu zokhetho eziphatha ngayo imisebenzi yazo futhi zenze izinqumo mayelana nokuqondisa kokhetho.
Ukubukezwa Kokwahlulela Nokuphoqelelwa Komthetho - sisekelo
Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zifeza indima ebalulekile ekuqinisekiseni imingcele yomthetho-mthetho ekwakheni izinqumo zikahulumeni. Ngamandla okuhlola, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zihlola ukumiswa kwemithetho, izenzo zokuphatha, nezinqumo zokuphatha ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuthobela umthetho-mthetho. Lo msebenzi wokwahlulela usebenza njengendlela ebalulekile yokuhlola amagatsha ezombangazwe futhi uqinisekisa ukuthi ukwenza izinqumo kukahulumeni kuhlala kungaphakathi kwemingcele engokomthetho-mthetho.
Izinga Lokubukeza Kokwahlulela EMthethweni Womthetho - sisekelo WoMbuso
Zonke izifundazwe manje zinikeza i-gabernonator commory i-veto futhi ziqaphela amandla okuhlola ukwahlulela. Leligunya lomthetho ngokomthetho lisiza izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba ziqede izenzo zikahulumeni eziphula amalungiselelo omthetho. Izinkantolo zoMbuso zisebenzisa leli gunya ezimpikiswaneni eziningi, kusukela emacaleni amalungelo abantu kuya ezimpikiswaneni eziphathelene nohulumeni negunya.
Uma inkantolo kahulumeni ibheka ukuguqulwa komthetho-sisekelo walowombuso njengokuphikisana noMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. noma wonke umthetho-sisekelo walowo hulumeni, inamandla okuwukhipha. Izizathu zokuvimbela ukunqanda ukunqanda ngisho nokuvotelwa kuhlanganisa ukungaqondakali kakhulu kwamagama noma ukuthi akuhlangene nempikiswano eyodwa kuphela. Le komiti iqinisekisa ukuthi ngisho nokulungisa umthetho-mthethweni kuvumelana nezimiso eziyisisekelo zomthetho-sisekelo nezimfuneko zemvelo.
Izinkantolo ZoMbuso Nencazelo Yomthetho - sisekelo Ozimele
UMahluleli Brennan, uMahluleli Sutton, nabanye baye baveza izizathu eziningi zokuthi kungani amajaji ezwe kufanele athathe icala lokuchaza ngokuzimele imithetho - sisekelo yombuso wawo, ngesizathu esishukumisa kakhulu ukuthi amajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme awafungi ukusekela imithetho - sisekelo kahulumeni, kodwa amajaji oMbuso ayawugcizelela lomthwalo ozimele wezinkantolo zikahulumeni wokuchaza nokuphoqelela amalungiselelo awo siqu omthetho - sisekelo.
Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zizimisele ngokuqhubekayo ukuhlukana nezincazelo zikahulumeni, ziwaqinise ukuba alondoloze amalungelo abantu ngabanye ekuphathweni yizisulu.
Izinhlelo Eziwusizo: Indlela Amalungiselelo Omthetho - sisekelo Azithonya Ngayo Izinqumo Eziqondile Zohulumeni
Amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni athonya ukwenza izinqumo zikahulumeni ngendlela eqinile nesebenzayo ezindaweni eziningi zezimiso. Ukuqonda lezi zimiso ezisebenzayo kubonisa indlela izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo eziguqula ngayo izenzo zohulumeni zangempela nemiphumela yezimiso.
Uhlelo lokusetshenziswa kwemali nokwenza isinqumo
Imithetho-mithetho kahulumeni iqukethe amalungiselelo aningiliziwe alawula izinqubo zemali, intela, nezikweletu zomphakathi. Lezi zimfuneko zomthetho ngokomthetho zinqanda ngokuqondile indlela ohulumeni bombuso abazenza ngayo izinqumo zemali. Ngokwesibonelo, izimfuneko ezilinganiselwe zezimiso zokusetshenziswa kwemali, ziphoqelela izikhulu zikahulumeni ukuba zenze ukukhetha okunzima mayelana nokusebenzisa izinto eziza kuqala nemithombo yemali, ngokuyinhloko okulawula inqubo yokusetshenziswa kwemali.
Imingcele yezikweletu zomthetho ilinganisela ikhono lohulumeni bamazwe lokuboleka imali, idinga ukuvota kwemithetho ephakeme noma ukuvota ngezinhlobo ezithile zezikweleti. Lemingcele engokomthetho iqinisekisa ukukhokhwa kwemali kodwa futhi ilinganisela ukuvumelana nohulumeni ekusingatheni izinselele zezomnotho noma ukuxhasa imisebenzi emikhulu yezezisekelo.
Imithetho Yemfundo Nomthetho - sisekelo
Imithetho-mthetho eminingi yombuso iqukethe amalungiselelo amisa ilungelo lemfundo noma ifuna umbuso ukuba ulondoloze isimiso sezikole zomphakathi. Lemiyalo yomthetho-sisekelo iye yabangela ukubekwa kwemithetho ephawulekayo mayelana nokuxhaswa kwesikole ngokusemthethweni nokungalingani. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ezichaza la malungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo ziye zayala izishaya - mthetho ukuba zilungise izimiso zemali zesikole, zibonisa indlela izimfuneko zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo ezingaphoqelela ngayo izenzo ezithile zikahulumeni.
Amalungiselelo oMthetho - sisekelo alawula ukuxhasa imfundo ngezimali athonya ngokuqondile indlela ohulumeni bombuso abazabela ngayo izimali ezifundeni futhi banqume izinga lokusekela kukahulumeni emfundweni yomphakathi. Lapho izishaya - mthetho zenza izinqumo ngenqubo yemfundo, kumelwe ziqinisekise ukuthi zivumelana nalezi zimfuneko zomthetho-sisekelo noma zifaka engozini ukungasebenzi kokwahlulela izenzo zazo.
Ukwahlulela Ngesigebengu Namalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo
Imithetho-sisekelo yoMbuso inelungiselelo eliningi elivikela amalungelo ezigebengu ezimangalelwe futhi liqondise izinqubo zomthetho zomthetho. Lezimiso zomthetho zenza izinqubo zokugcinwa komthetho, abashushisi nezinkantolo zithathe izinqumo emacaleni obugebengu. Izinhlelo ezilawulwa umthetho-sisekelo woMbuso ezilawula ukuseshwa nokuthathelwa indleko, ukuweluleka, ukuqulwa kwecala, nebheyili zithonya ngokuqondile izinqumo zomthetho ezizenziwa kuzo zonke izigaba zenqubo.
Eminye imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni inikeza isivikelo esikhulu kubamangalelwa bezigebengu kunokuba kufunwa uMthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni. Lapho izinkantolo zikahulumeni zichaza lamalungiselelo okunikeza isivikelo esikhudlwana, zimisa izenzakalo ezibophayo ezibusa indlela izikhulu zokwahlulela zomthetho womthetho ezizenza ngayo izinqumo. Lokhu kubonisa indlela umthetho womthetho-mthetho wezwe onganikeza ngayo isivikelo esiqinile samalungelo abantu ngabanye kunamalungelo angaphansi kahulumeni.
Isivikelo Sendawo Ezungezile Negunya Lomthetho - sisekelo
Imithetho-mithetho eminingana yombuso inezimiso ezihlanganisa ukuvikelwa kwendawo ezungezile noma ukumiswa kwamalungelo endawo. La malungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo anikeza isisekelo sokuqondisa kukahulumeni kokulimaza indawo ezungezile futhi kwezinye izimo, akha amalungelo aqikelelwayo endaweni ezungezile ehlanzekile. Lapho izinhlangano zikahulumeni zenza izinqumo mayelana nemithetho yendawo ezungezile, kumelwe zicabangele lemiyalo yomthetho-sisekelo kanye nezimfuneko zomthetho.
Amalungiselelo ezemvelo emithetho-sisekelo angalinganisela futhi igunya likahulumeni ekuvumeleni imisebenzi eyolimaza indawo ezungezile. Izinkantolo ezichaza lamalungiselelo ziye zalulaza izinqumo zikahulumeni ezihlulekayo ukuvikela imithombo yendawo ezungezile, zibonisa indlela izimfuneko zomthetho ngokomthetho ezivimbela ngayo ukuqapha kukahulumeni ekwenzeni izinqumo zendawo ezungezile.
Izinselele Nokugxekwa Kokwenziwa Kwesinqumo Somthetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni
Nakuba imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni ifeza imisebenzi ebalulekile ekuhleleni uhulumeni futhi ivikele amalungelo, isimiso somthetho-sisekelo sombuso sibhekene nezinselele eziningi nokugxekwa. Ukuqonda lezinselele kunikeza umongo obalulekile wokuhlola indlela imithetho-sisekelo yombuso ephumelela ngayo ekuqondiseni izinqumo zikahulumeni.
Ukuba Yinkimbinkimbi Nobude Bomthetho - sisekelo
Ubude nokuyinkimbinkimbi komthetho-sisekelo wezwe abaningi kudala izinselele ekwenzeni izinqumo zikahulumeni. Uma imithetho-mthetho iqukethe amalungiselelo anemininingwane eminingi esingatha izindaba ezithile ezicatshangelwe, ingenze uhulumeni ubeke imvume futhi ikwenze kube nzima ukuzivumelanisa nezimo ezishintshayo. Ukushintsha njalo kwemithetho-sisekelo kahulumeni kungadala ukudideka ngokuthi yimaphi amalungiselelo asele asebenza kanjani nendlela amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo asebenza ngayo.
Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi imithetho-mthetho yesifunda ngokuvamile inemikhakha engalungiswa ngokufanelena kakhulu ngomthetho ovamile. Uma ukukhetha kwezimiso kuhlelwa ngokomthetho, kuba nzima kakhulu ukushintsha futhi kungase kungabonisi ukuthi umphakathi uthanda yini manje. Lokhu kungaholela ekuhlelweni komthetho-sisekelo okuphelelwe isikhathi okungasasebenzi ezinjongweni zawo kodwa kuhlale kusebenza ngenxa yobunzima bokulungisa umthetho.
Isithakazelo Esikhethekile Ezinqubweni Zomthetho - sisekelo
Ukushelela okuncane komthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni oncitshisiwe uma kuqhathaniswa noMthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni udala amathuba ezithakazelo ezikhethekile zokuphishekela izinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo ezifeza izinjongo ezilinganiselwe. Amaqembu enzalo anezici ezingcono angasebenzisa inqubo yokuqala noma izishaya - mthetho ezingenisa izimemezelo zomthetho-sisekelo ukuze abeke izinguquko ezingokomthetho ebhokisini eliqhubekisela phambili izinhlelo zawo ezizocatshangelwe, okungabangela ukulahlekelwa okukhulu kwezithakazelo zomphakathi.
Ukunqikaza kwabantu okwandayo kokuthemba imihlangano, namaqembu esithakazelo ayeyofuna ngokungenakugwenywa ukuthonya izihambeli ezihlangene, ukwenza izinguquko ezincwadini zawo eziyisisekelo kubonisa ukukhathazeka komphakathi ngesithakazelo esikhethekile esibangelwa ushintsho lomthetho - sisekelo. Lokhu kungqubuzana phakathi kokuhlanganyela kwentando yeningi nokuthakazelelwa kwesithakazelo esikhethekile kuseyinselele eqhubekayo ekubusweni komthetho - sisekelo.
Ukuthatha Icala Kokwahlulela Nokulandisa Ngentando Yeningi
Indima yezinkantolo zikahulumeni ekuchazeni nasekuqiniseni amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo iphakamisa imibuzo mayelana nokulandisa ngentando yeningi nokuthatha izivumelwano zokwahlulela. Uma izinkantolo zichitha ukumiswa kwemithetho noma izenzo zobucukubhede ezisekelwe ezisekelweni zomthetho-sisekelo, zisebenzisa amandla aphawulekayo anganqoba ukwenza izinqumo zentando yeningi. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukubukezwa kobucukubhede bentando yeningi kungalulaza ukubusa kwentando yeningi ngokuthatha indawo izinqumo zomthetho.
Abavikeli bokwahlulela abaqinile baphendula ngokuthi ukugcinwa komthetho - sisekelo kubalulekile ekuvikeleni amalungelo abantu nokugcina umthetho. Baphikisa ngokuthi izinkantolo zifeza umsebenzi obalulekile ekuhloleni abaphangi noqinisekisa ukuthi ababusi bezombangazwe bahlonipha imingcele engokomthetho. Le mpikiswano eqhubekayo iveza ukungezwani okuyisisekelo ekubuseni komthetho - sisekelo phakathi kokubusa kweningi nokuvinjelwa komthetho - sisekelo.
Imikhuba Emihle Kakhulu Yokwenziwa Kwesinqumo Somthetho - sisekelo
Ukusetshenziswa okuphumelelayo komthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni ukuze uqondise ukwenza izinqumo zikahulumeni kudinga ukunamathela emikhubeni ethile engcono kakhulu ekhuthaza ukuthembeka komthetho-mthetho, ukulandisa ngentando yeningi, nokubusa okuhle. Le mikhuba isiza ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo afeza izinjongo zawo kuyilapho evumela ukuvumelana nohulumeni okudingekile.
Izindlela Zokuchaza Umthetho - sisekelo
Umthetho - sisekelo kufanele uchazwe ngokwezinhloso zawo, ikakhulukazi lezo ezishiwo ngokucacile, uqinisekisa ukuthi imingcele yamandla kahulumeni iyaphoqelelwa futhi amalungelo abantu ayatholakala. Izinkantolo zoMbuso nezikhulu zikahulumeni kufanele zisebenzise izindlela ezingaguquki nezinezimiso zokuchaza umthetho - sisekelo ezihlonipha umbhalo, isimo nenjongo.
Izindlela zokuchaza ezihlukene − kuhlanganise nokuchaza imibhalo, ukusungula, ukubunumla, nokusebenza komthetho-sisekelo (prastivism), kunikeza imibono ehlukahlukene ngendlela yokuchaza amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo. Nakuba izazi namahluleli bephikisana ngokubaluleka kwalezi zinqubo, ukuvumelana kwezindlela zokuchaza kuthuthukisa ukubikezela nokuqina komthetho-sisekelo, okwenza izikhulu zikahulumeni zenze izinqumo ngokuqiniseka ngezimfuneko zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo.
Ukubukezwa Komthetho - sisekelo
Amahhovisi ezeluleko ezingokomthetho nezisebenzi zamakomiti afeza indima ebalulekile ekuboneni izimpikiswano ezingase zibe khona ngomthetho-mthetho kanye nokweluleka izishayamthetho ngemithetho elawulwa umthetho-mthetho. Ukubukezwa komthetho-mthetho okuphelele phakathi nenqubo yomthetho-mthetho kungavimbela ukumiswa kwemithetho engekho ngokomthetho futhi kunciphise ukubekwa kwemithetho yemithetho.
Ezinye izifundazwe ziye zamisa amakomiti okubukeza umthetho - sisekelo noma zafuna izinkulumo eziwumthetho - sisekelo ezisekelayo ukuze kunikezwe umthetho ohlongozwayo.
Inhlangano Yegatsha Ephethe Umthetho - sisekelo
Ohulumeni nezikhulu zegatsha kufanele bafake umthetho-sisekelo ezinqubweni zabo. Abameli abaphethe amahhovisi oMbuso banikeza iziluleko ezingokomthetho eziphetheyo ngezimfuneko zomthetho-mthetho futhi babukeze izenzo ezihlongozwayo ezizosetshenziswa ezingxabanweni zomthetho-sisekelo. Ukumisa izinqubo ezicacile zokubukezwa komthetho-mthetho wezenzo zobuphathi kuqinisekisa ukuthi izinqumo zikahulumeni zihlala zingaphakathi kwemingcele yomthetho-sisekelo.
Izikhulu zegatsha eziphethe kufanele futhi zihloniphe izinqumo zokwahlulela ezichaza amalungiselelo omthetho - sisekelo, ngisho nalapho zingavumelani nalezozincazelo.
Imfundo Yomphakathi Nokufunda Ngomthetho - sisekelo
Umthetho - sisekelo ophumelelayo udinga ukuba izakhamuzi ezinolwazi oluqonda izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo nezinqubo. Ohulumeni boMbuso kufanele bafake izimali ezimisweni zemfundo yomphakathi ezifundisa izakhamuzi ngomthetho-sisekelo wombuso nangendlela amalungiselelo omthetho - sisekelo athinta ngayo ukwenza izinqumo zikahulumeni. Uma izakhamuzi ziqonda izimfuneko zomthetho-sisekelo, zingahlanganyela kangcono ezimisweni zentando yeningi futhi zigcine izikhulu zikahulumeni zinecala lokuzivumelanisa nomthetho.
Imfundo yomphakathi mayelana nezinqubo zokulungisa umthetho-sisekelo ibaluleke kakhulu. Izakhamuzi kufanele ziqonde indlela okuhlongozwa ngayo ukulungisa umthetho-sisekelo, izimfuneko zokuhlunga, kanye nemiphumela yezinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo. Lolwazi lusiza ukuba kungenelwe ukuthatha izinqumo ezingokomthetho-mthetho ngokwenza isinqumo ngokhetho oluhlongozwayo nokuhlanganyela ezimpikiswaneni zomphakathi mayelana nenguquko yomthetho-mthetho.
Ikusasa Lokubusa Komthetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni
Umthetho-sisekelo woMbuso uzoqhubeka ufeza indima eyinhloko ekubuseni kwaseMelika, uvumelane nezinselele ezintsha kuyilapho ulondoloza imisebenzi yawo ebalulekile yokuhlela uhulumeni namalungelo okuvikela. Izimo nentuthuko eziningana cishe ziyohlela ikusasa lokwenza umthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni.
Ukunakekelwa Okuvuselelwe Kobumthetho - sisekelo BukaHulumeni
Zonke izimpawu zikhomba ekuvuselweni kwenqubo efanelekile engaphansi esimisweni sikahulumeni, kodwa izilinganiso azinalo igama lokugcina ngamalungelo ayisisekelo. Njengoba izivikelo zomthetho sisekelo kahulumeni wezwe zingaba baluleke kakhulu ekuvikeleni amalungelo abantu ngabanye. Lokhu kungaholela ekunakeni kabusha ekuchazeni incazelo yomthetho-sisekelo kanye nokwanda kwemithetho-mthetho ngaphansi kwamalungiselelo kahulumeni.
Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zingase zincike ngokuqhubekayo ezisekelweni ezizimele zomthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni ukuze zivikele amalungelo ancishisiwe ngaphansi komthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni.
Uhulumeni Wezobuchwepheshe Nomthetho - sisekelo
Intuthuko yezobuchwepheshe izodala izinselele ezintsha zokubusa umthetho-sisekelo wezwe. Izihloko ezinjengokulawula kwe-athom, ukulawula kobuhlakani, kanye ne-inthanethi yokukhuluma kuyodinga ukuba ohulumeni bombuso basebenzise izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo ezasungulwa ezimweni ezintsha. Imithetho-sisekelo yoMbuso ingadinga ukushintshwa ukuze ixazulule izindaba zobuchwepheshe ezihlobene ngokuqondile, noma izinkantolo zingadinga ukuchaza amalungiselelo omthetho-mgaqo akhona ngokucabangela ushintsho lwezobuchwepheshe.
Ubuchwepheshe bungase buthinte nezinqubo zomthetho - sisekelo.
Ukushintsha Kwesimo Sezulu Nokuvumelana Nomthetho - sisekelo
Ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu cishe kuyobangela intuthuko yomthetho - sisekelo emashumini eminyaka azayo.
Ohulumeni boMbuso kuyodingeka benze izinqumo ezinzima mayelana nokwabiwa kwezimpahla, ukutshala izakhiwo nokuqondisa ukuze kuhlangatshezwane nokushintsha kwesimo sezulu.
Ushintsho Lomlando Nokuziphendukela Komthetho - sisekelo
Izinguquko zenani labantu, kuhlanganise nokushintsha kwenani labantu, ukuhlukahluka, nokushintsha kwezizukulwane, kuyothonya ukuthuthuka komthetho-sisekelo. Njengoba imiphakathi kahulumeni ihlukahluka ngokwengeziwe, izinhlelo zomthetho-sisekelo ezikhuluma ngamalungelo omphakathi, amalungelo okuvota, kanye nesivikelo esifanayo zingachazwa ngokubanzi kakhulu noma ngokushintshwa ukuze zinikeze isivikelo esengeziwe. Ukuhluka kwezizukulwane ezingokomthetho-sisekelo kungaholela ekulungiseni ukushintsha kwezimiso ezishintshayo zezenhlalo nezimiso.
Izinhlangano zenani labantu phakathi kwezifunda zingathinta ukubusa komthetho-sisekelo. Njengoba abantu bethuthela ezindaweni ezivumelana nomthetho-sisekelo, izifundazwe zingabhekana nokucindezela kokulondoloza noma ukulungisa amalungiselelo azo omthetho-sisekelo ukuze zikhange noma zigcine izakhamuzi. Lokhu kungaholela ekwahlukahlukaneni okukhulu komthetho-sisekelo phakathi kwezifundakazi noma, ngokunye, ukuhlangana nezibonelo eziphumelelayo zomthetho-sisekelo.
Izimiso Eziyinhloko Zokuqonda Ukwenziwa Kwesinqumo Somthetho - sisekelo Kahulumeni
Ukuqonda lezi zimiso kunikeza umzila wokuhlaziya ukubusa komthetho - sisekelo nokuhlaziya ukuphumelela kwamalungiselelo omthetho - sisekelo ekuqondiseni izenzo zikahulumeni.
- I-Constigational Supremacy: Umthetho-sisekelo woMbuso usebenza njengomthetho ophakeme phakathi kwezindawo zawo, ungaphansi kwezimfuneko zomthetho-sisekelo ezilawulwa kuphela. Zonke izenzo zikahulumeni kumelwe zivumelane namalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo, futhi izinkantolo zinegunya lokuqeda izenzo eziphula izimfuneko zomthetho-mthetho.
- Ukuhlukaniswa kwama-Powers: Umthetho-sisekelo woMbuso umisa amagatsha ahlukene kahulumeni anamandla ahlukene nemithwalo yemfanelo. Lokhu kuhlukanisa kwakha isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisa okuvimbela noma iliphi igatsha elilodwa ekusebenziseni amandla engeziwe futhi kuqinisekisa ukuthi ukwenza izinqumo zikahulumeni kuhilela izinhlangano eziningi.
- Ubukhosi obuPhakathi:[ Umthetho-sisekelo woMbuso uthola igunya lawo kubantu, abalondoloza amandla okususa noma bathathe indawo yomthetho-sisekelo wabo. Lesimiso siqinisekisa ukuthi ukubusa komthetho-sisekelo kuhlala kusabela ekwamukeleni okuthandwayo kuyilapho kuvikela amalungelo ayisisekelo ezimini ezinkulu zesikhashana.
- I-Federalism:[ umthetho-sisekelo woMbuso usebenza ngaphakathi kwesimiso sikahulumeni esihlukanisa igunya phakathi kohulumeni nohulumeni. Amazwe anamandla abanzi okubusa phakathi kwemibuso yawo kodwa kumelwe ahloniphe izimfuneko zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni kanye nobukhulu obuphezulu ezindaweni zegunya likahulumeni.
- Isivikelo esilungile:[ umthetho-sisekelo woMbuso uvikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye, ngokuvamile unikeza isivikelo esikhulu kunaleso esifunwa nguMthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni. Lamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo anqanda ukwenza izinqumo zikahulumeni futhi anikeze izakhamuzi iziphakamiso eziphoqelelweyo ngokumelene nesenzo sikahulumeni.
- Izimiso zomthetho-mthetho: amalungiselelo alawula izinhlelo zikahulumeni, izinqubo, negunya ahlela ngokuqondile indlela okwenziwa ngayo izinqumo zikahulumeni. Lamalungiselelo okwakha athuthukisa ukulandisa, ukuba sobala, nokucabangisisa ekwenzeni izinqumo zikahulumeni.
- [[NT.:0] I-Judicial Review: Izinkantolo zifeza indima ebalulekile ekuchazeni nasekuqinisekiseni amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo, ziqinisekisa ukuthi izenzo zikahulumeni zivumelana nezimfuneko zomthetho-mthetho. Ukuhlola kwezokwahlulela kusebenza njengenhlolo emagatsheni ezombangazwe futhi zivikela izimiso zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo kunoma isiphi isiphisi.
- Ukuguquguquka komthetho-mthetho wombuso: ingalungiswa kalula kakhulu kunomthetho-sisekelo kazwelonke, ivumele ukuvumela ukuguqulwa kwezimo ezishintshayo kuyilapho igcina ukubusa komthetho-sisekelo. Lokhu kushintsha kuvumela ukuba kuxazululwe izinselele ezintsha ngoshintsho lomthetho-sisekelo uma kudingekile.
Imithombo Yemfundo Eqhubekayo
Ukuqonda indlela ohulumeni bombuso abasebenzisa ngayo imithetho - sisekelo yabo ukuze benze izinqumo kudinga ukutadisha nokuvumelana nezinto zomthetho - sisekelo kanye nolwazi.
Amawebhusayithi kahulumeni uhulumeni anikeza ukwaziswa okungatholakali emibhalweni yamuva yomthetho-sisekelo, ukuhlongozwa kwezinhlelo zomthetho-sisekelo nokwaziswa ngezinqubo zomthetho-sisekelo. Izifunda eziningi zigcina amakhomishane abukeziwe noma amakomiti okucwaninga akhiqiza imibiko ehlaziya izindaba zomthetho-sisekelo futhi atuse izinguquko. Lezi zincwadi zinikeza ukuqonda okubalulekile ngendlela imithetho-sisekelo esebenza ngayo nendlela engathuthukiswa ngayo.
Izinhlangano zokucwaninga zihlola umthetho womthetho-mthetho futhi zishicilela izazi zihlola ukuchazwa komthetho-mthetho, izinqubo zokulungisa, nokuhlaziya komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wombuso ngokuqhathanisa. Izinhlangano ezinjenge- Conferenceal of State Legistrations zinikeza imithombo yemithombo yemithetho-mthetho nentuthuko yomthetho-sisekelo ezizweni.
Izincwadi ezingokomthetho zinezinqumo zenkantolo ezichaza amalungiselelo omthetho - sisekelo, okwenza abacwaningi bakwazi ukuhlola indlela izinkantolo ezisebenzisa ngayo izimiso zomthetho - sisekelo emacaleni athile.
Brennan Center for Justice futhi izinhlangano ezifanayo zilandela izinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo futhi zihlaziya imiphumela yazo yokuvikela amalungelo nokubusa kwentando yeningi. Lezinhlangano zinikeza izifushaniso ezifinyelelweyo zentuthuko yomthetho-sisekelo futhi zisekela izinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo ezikhuthaza ubulungisa nokulingana.
Isiphetho
Umthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni usebenza njengezincwadi eziyisisekelo ezingokomthetho ezithi izakhiwo zohulumeni bamazwe ziqondise ukwenza izinqumo kohulumeni kuzo zonke izinhlangano zezimiso. Kusukela ekumiseni uhlelo oluyisisekelo lukahulumeni ngokuhlukanisa amagunya ukuze kuvikelwe amalungelo abantu nokucindezela igunya likahulumeni, imithetho-mthetho ithonya kakhulu indlela ohulumeni bombuso abasebenza futhi benze izinqumo ngayo.
Ubuhlobo phakathi komthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni nokwenza izinqumo zikahulumeni bunamandla futhi bunezici eziningi. Amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo agunyaza noma anqabele izenzo ezithile zikahulumeni, amisa izinqubo ezilawula izinqubo zokwenza izinqumo, futhi adale amalungelo aqiniswayo alinganisela amandla kahulumeni. Izikhulu zoMbuso kuwo wonke amazinga(abalawuli, ababusi, abahluleli, nezikhulu zokuphatha) kumelwe ziqondise izimfuneko zomthetho-mthetho lapho zenza izinqumo, ziqinisekisa ukuthi izenzo zazo zivumelana nezimiso zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo.
Inqubo yokulungisa ivumela imithetho-sisekelo kahulumeni ukuba ishintshele ekuphenduleni izimo ezishintshayo nezindinganiso, izwe lisebenzise izindlela ezihlukahlukene ezihlanganisa izikhulu zemithetho, izikhululo zezakhamuzi, imihlangano yezomthetho-sisekelo, kanye nokutusa kwe-common. Lokhu kuvumela imithetho-sisekelo yezwe ukuba ixazulule izinselele zamanje kuyilapho ilondoloza imisebenzi yalo ebalulekile yokuhlela uhulumeni nokuvikela amalungelo.
Njengoba ubuzwe baseMelika buqhubeka buguquka, imithetho-mthetho yesifundazwe iyohlala ibalulekile ekwenzeni izinqumo zikahulumeni, ithatha ukubaluleka okukhulu kakhulu njengoba ukunakekela kusuka kuhulumeni kuya ekubuseni kukahulumeni. Ukuqonda indlela ohulumeni bombuso abasebenzisa ngayo imithetho yabo ukuze benze izinqumo kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda uhulumeni waseMelika, ahlanganyele ngokuphumelelayo ezinqubweni zentando yeningi, noma asekele izinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo ezithuthukisa ubulungisa, ukulandisa, kanye nokubusa okuphumelelayo.
Ubunkimbinkimbi nezinhlobonhlobo zezimiso zomthetho-sisekelo wombuso zibonakalisa ukuklanywa kukahulumeni waseMelika, ovumela amazwe ukuba asebenze njengezindawo zokuhlola idemokrasi futhi athuthukise izindlela ezihlukile zokubusa. Ngokufunda indlela imibuso ehlukene esebenzisa ngayo imithetho yayo ukuze iqondise ukuqondisa izinqumo, sizuza ukuqonda ngamathuba nezinselele zokubusa komthetho-sisekelo kanye nomsebenzi oqhubekayo wokwakha izinhlangano zikahulumeni ezinamandla ngokwanele ukusingatha izidingo zomphakathi futhi ziphoqelelwe ngokwanele ukuvikela inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye.