Imfundiso engokomthetho yokuvikela uhulumeni wezwe ivikela ohulumeni nezinhlangano zabo ukuba bangamangalelwa enkantolo kahulumeni ngaphandle kwemvume yabo. Amabhizinisi nabantu abasebenza nabo, abasebenzela, noma abalinyazwe amabhizinisi kahulumeni (SOEs), lemfundiso inikeza isithiyo esiphawulekayo esingokomthetho. SOEs isendaweni ekhethekile engokomthetho; yenza imisebenzi yezentengiselwano ephathwa amabhizinisi azimele kodwa igcine izivikelo ezingokomthetho zikahulumeni. I-Navigatgate isholo yamalungelo omphakathi ngokumelene nalezinhlangano ze-soligini, umthetho womthetho-mthetho-mthetho, kanye nomthetho wezodwa ovumela ukuba kuqhubeke.

ISisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Sombuso Ophakeme

Imfundiso yanamuhla yokuvikela uhulumeni ikhipha amandla ayo angokomthetho eSichibiyelweni seshumi nanye ukuya eMthethweni woMthetho-sisekelo wase-United States, eyagunyazwa ngo-1795. IsiHlanzi sabuthelwa ukuphendula okuqondile esinqumweni seNkantolo Ephakeme Chashishm v. Georgia[ [1793], lapho iNkantolo yakhona yayithi isakhamuzi singamangalela khona isifundazwe esisenkantolo engokomthetho. Umbhalo weSiphendulo sekhulu sekhulu leshumi nanye unciphe, usho ukuthi amandla omthetho kahulumeni awanwebi ayilethi agwetyelwe isamba sesinye izakhamuzi zombuso noma izihloko zakwamanye amazwe.

Naphezu kwalokhu kulinganiselwa kombhalo, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yachaza iSichibiyelo njengesinesimiso esibanzi sokuvikela ubukhosi. .Louisiana [1890], iNkantolo yathi lesi silwelo sokuzivikela sibopha futhi izakhamuzi zikahulumeni. Kamuva, USANOLETYLE FORY of Florida v. [1966], iNkantolo yaqinisa lemfundiso ngokukhipha umthetho wokuthi uKhomishanelo lungasebenzisi iSiphakamiso saso (njengeSikhathi sikaCentu) somthetho owesizwe. Lezi zinkantolo ezivelele zasungula ukuthi ukuvikelwa kwesimiso sombuso wezwe lonke.

Lokhu kugonywa akukona okuphelele, kodwa kudala isithiyo sokulawula okumelwe sisuswe phambi kwenkantolo ukuze kusizwe izinzuzo zecala elimelene neSOE.

Ukuchaza ungenelo lwezwe--39d: I-"Arm of State" Isivivinyo

Umbuzo obalulekile kunoma yisiphi isici esilawulwa uhulumeni ukuthi leyo nhlangano iyafaneleka yini njengesizwe ". Uma i-SOE ibhekwa njengengalo kazwelo, idla ifa lomthetho wesivikelo sikahulumeni. Uma ibhekwa njengenhlangano kamasipala noma isifundazwe sendawo, ngokuvamile ayitholakali isivikelo se-Prefectionthmetication, nakuba ingase ibe nezinye isivikelo esitholakala ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni.

Izinkantolo zisebenzisa ukuhlolwa kokulinganisela okuningi ukuze kubonwe ukuthi into ethile ingalo kahulumeni. Isici esibaluleke kakhulu yiyo ekhokha isahlulelo. Uma umonakalo ungakhokhwa emphongolweni wezimali kahulumeni, cishe lento ingondlekile. Ezinye izici ezibucayi zihlanganisa:

  • Isiteshi sokulawula: Izinga lokwengamela nokulawula umbuso uvivinya ukusebenza kwento efezwayo nokwenza izinqumo.
  • Iphawu ngaphansi koMthetho woMbuso: Iyiphi indlela umthetho wezwe ochaza ngayo into (umz., njengenhlangano kazwelonke noma ithuluzi elizimele).
  • [[AKT:0] Umthombo ohlanganisayo: Ingabe lento ixhaswe ngokuyinhloko ngemisebenzi ye-appropring kahulumeni noma imisebenzi yayo yokuhlela inzuzo.
  • [[I-FULT:0] Purpose:[ Uma lento isebenzisa umsebenzi kahulumeni noma umsebenzi we-propritary/umqambi.

Ku Hess v. Port Authority Trans-Hudson Corp. [1994], iNkantolo Ephakeme yagcizelela ukuthi nakuba izici eziningana zibalulekile, "izizathu ze-stin" zeSichibiyelo seshumi nanye" zokuvikela izakhiwo zombuso nokuvikela isithunzi sikahulumeni nokugcina isithunzi sikahulumeni. Imisebenzi esebenza njengamabhizinisi, inyusa inzuzo yayo, kanye nezahlulelo zobuso ezingangeni ezikhona ezisethubeni lokuzivikela kakhulu. Nokho, izinhlangano ezilawulwa ngokuqinile yi-modurame futhi zikhona ukuze zigcine isimiso sombuso ngokuvamile sivikelekile, ngisho nalapho zihileleke emisebenzini yezentengiselwano.

Indlela Ukungahlangani OkunguMbusi Okuthinta Ngayo Ukuqanjwa Kwamacala Omphakathi

Uma ukuzivikela kombuso kusebenza, imiphumela yayo ihlaba umxhwele. Inkantolo kahulumeni ayinakho ukubusa kwesihloko somthetho phezu kwesudi, okusho ukuthi icala lingaxoshwa ekuqaleni kanye ekuthatheni isinyathelo sokuxosha ngaphansi koMthetho 12(b)(1) weFederal Rules of Civil Procediture. Ukuxoshwa kwecala ngokuvamile kuhambisana nobandlululo, kukhipha i-painttiff ekukhipheni i-refidi enkantolo kahulumeni.

Lokhu kufinyelela ezinhlotsheni eziningi zokuzisholo ngokuvamile okuye kwalethwa kumaSOE, kuhlanganise nalezi:

  • Ukuqubuka kweContract: I-SOE ehluleka ukukhokhela umthengisi noma amaphutha esivumelwano kungenzeka igonyelwe isuti yomonakalo.
  • [ Izisho: Umuntu olinyazwe ukunganaki kwesisebenzi se-SOE anganqatshelwa ukuba afune isinxephezelo enkantolo kahulumeni.
  • I-Constigal Torts (42 U.S.C. 76):[ Umthathi-mfashini akanakumangalela inxusa likahulumeni noma i-SOE ngokuqondile ngenxa yemali ekhokhiwe enkantolo kahulumeni ngenxa yokwephulwa kwamalungelo omthetho-mthetho-sisekelo.
  • [ Ukucwasana okungalawuleki: kusho ukuthi ngaphansi kwamaMelika anomthetho wokukhubazeka (ADA) noma i-Age Discist in Act (ADEA) in SOE Act (ADEA) kungathiwa ilinganiselwe noma ivinjelwe ukukhishelwa phansi okusemthethweni yiSishaya-Mkhandlu.

Isihluthulelo Esihlukile Nesezikhundla Zokulwa Nezimo Ezibi

Naphezu kokufinyelela kobuningi kwesimiso sokuvikela ukuzivikela komzimba, kukhona izindlela eziningana ezihlukile nezingasetshenziswa ekukhipheni imvume yokuba abaphangi baphishekele lokho okushiwo amabhizinisi kahulumeni.

Ukukhishwa Kwenhlangano Ngaphansi Kwengxenye 5 YeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Nakuba iSishaya - mthetho singenakukwazi ukuvikela inqubo ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso I, singangaphansi kweSiqeshana 5 seSichibiyelo seshumi nane. FATRItzrick v. [[FLT:][197], iNkantolo yathi ngenxa yokuthi iSichibiyelo seMinyaka Engamashumi Amane seSigqi Samayela saklanyelwa ukulinganisela ubukhosi bakhona, uMkhandlu unamandla okuphoqesha amalungiselelo awo ngokuvumela isuti ukuba limoshe imibuso. Ukuze intenganiso ifanele isebenze, iSishaya-Mnyango (1) kumelwe siyenze inhloso yayo i-brogate "i - - misting" embhalweni we-gateo, (2) yenza phakathi kwesilinganiso samandla ayo okusebenza kwesigaba 5.

Inkantolo iye yasebenzisa lokhu okungaqondakali ngokukhetha. Ngokwesibonelo, Testae v. Lane (2004), iNkantolo yasekela ukukhishwa kwesimiso sokuvikela iSihloko II se-ADA ngokuphathelene nokufinyelela ezinkantolo. Nokho, [ku-Uhlangane lwase-Alabamabrangev. Garrett[ (2001], iNkantolo yashaya iSihloko seSihloko I-ADA (ukucwasana), ithola ukuthi umthetho ofanele uboniswe inqubo yombuso. ULitigla kumelwe ahlole ngokucophelela inqubo ethile engokomthetho esemthethweni emayelana nokubona ilungiselelo elisemthethweni.

Imfundiso ye- Exte Young: Izikhulu zikahulumeni eziphambukisayo ukuze zithole usizo oludambile

Elinye lamathuluzi anamandla kakhulu okumelana nokuzivikela kombuso umthetho. Indaba eqanjiwe ingu-Ex e Young imfundiso esekelwe ku-1990, le mfundiso ivumela iqembu elizimele ukuba liqule isikhulu sikahulumeni enkantolo kahulumeni ukuze kuvinjelwe ukwephulwa okuqhubekayo komthetho kahulumeni. Inganekwane engokomthetho ithi isikhulu sombuso esingenzi ngokungemthetho asisebenzi ngenxa kazwelonke, futhi ngenxa yalokho iSichibiyelo seshumi Nenye asiyivimbeli isuti.

Lokhu kukhishwa kubaluleke kakhulu ukuze kuvinjelwe amalungelo omphakathi, umthetho wendawo ezungezile, nanoma yikuphi lapho umlibo ufuna ukumisa isifundazwe noma isimiso se-SOE kunokuba aqoqe umonakalo. Ngokwesibonelo, umthakathi angamangalela inhloko yesibhedlela (i-SOE) ukuze anqande umkhuba owephula imithetho kahulumeni. Nokho, imfundiso ayivumeli ukudalula, njengokulimaza noma ukubuyisela umonakalo odlule.

I - waiver Engenisa Imali Neyakhayo

Izwe noma i-SOE ingasusa ukuzivikela kobuso be-social sobuso kanye nokuvuma ukuvumelana. Le-opaser kumele iboniswe "cred kanye nangokucacile". Isishaya-mthetho sikahulumeni singadlulisa umthetho ovimbela isigaba esithile semali, njengokuthi isivumelwano simelene nesimiso saso saseyunivesithi kahulumeni noma ukusho okuvela ekusebenzeni kwezimoto zikahulumeni.

Ezinye izifundazwe ziye zamisa iTort Acts ezithi ukuvikela kokuzivikela kohlobo oluthile lokunganaki kugunyazwe ukuthi, nakuba ngokuvamile kubangela umonakalo ngenani eliphansi. Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-SOE esusa icala enkantolo kahulumeni liye enkantolo kahulumeni ingabhekwa njengeye yawaphula ukuzivikela kwalo kulelocala, njengoba kuboniswe ku Lapipes v. Board of Regents System of Georgia

Abaqondisi-mthetho futhi kufanele bahlole umthetho we-SOE wokusebenza noma wokusungula. Ama-SOE amaningi akhiwa ngamalungiselelo acacile ngokuphathelene nokuthi angamangalelwa noma angamangalelwa. "unyunyu futhi ususwe" kumthetho-mthetho kahulumeni uyisibonakaliso esinamandla sokulahla, kodwa izingcaphuno ezifanayo ezisemendweni zikahulumeni zichazwa kancinci kakhulu ngezinkantolo zikahulumeni.

Ukumangalelwa Kwenkantolo Yasesifundazweni

ISichibiyelo seshumi nanye sikhokhelwa enkantolo kahulumeni, kodwa asikhona okumelwe sifakelwe enkantolo yombuso. Umbuso ungachaza izinga lokuzivikela kobuso bawo ezinkantolo zawo siqu. Uma umbuso uwenqabe ukuvikela komthetho kahulumeni enkantolo, umthathi-mthetho angaqhubeka ngokumelene ne-SOE lapho.

Lokhu kuwumehluko obucayi. Ngaphansi I-Erie Railroup Co v. Tompkins (1938), izinkantolo zikahulumeni ezihlala ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene zisebenzisa umthetho wezwe ongaphansi kwezwe. Nokho, iSichibiyelo seshumi nanye sivimbela inkantolo kahulumeni ukuba ilalele icala elimelene nombuso, ngisho noma ukuzisho kwayo kusekelwe emthethweni wezwe kuphela. Ngakho i-Tompkiff kumelwe iphinde ibuye ifake uhele enkantolo yombuso. Izifunda eziningi ziye zagcina izimfundiso zazo zokuvikela ubukhosi ezingasemgangathweni ezingase zibe zibanzi noma zinciphene kunendinganiselo kahulumeni, ngakho umthetho oqondile kumelwe uhlaziswe ngokucophelela.

Umbuso OnguMbusi Wangaphandle Umthetho (FSIA) Ohlukile

Kubalulekile ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwamabhizinisi angaphakathi kahulumeni wangaphandle namabhizinisi kahulumeni. I-Loral SOES (umz., isikhulu setheku esihamba ngenkani samazwe eNew Jersey) sibuswa yiSichibiyelo seshumi nanye ne-U.S. uhulumeni we-jurisprudence. SOES (umzk., inkampani kawoyela kazwelonke eSaudi Arabia eyenza ibhizinisi le-U.S.) ilawulwa yi-Saudia junius Act (FSIA), U.C.C. 1601611.

IFSIA inikeza ngokuqondile umsebenzi owehlukile , ophika ukugonywa kwe-SOEs yangaphandle lapho icala lisekelwe emsebenzini wezentengiselwano e-United States. Lokhu kuhluke kakhulu ku-Impucuko yeshumi nanye, engenayo imisebenzi yezentengiselwano ehlukene ne-soEs. Umkhohlisi okhohliswayo ufaka i-SOE yesivumelwano sezentengiselwano evame ukubhekana nesivikelo sombuso wezentengiselwano, kanti ummangalelwa okhokhi owe wangaphandle owenqaba ukumelana nempoqo efanayo efanayo akakwenzi njalo.

Ukuthambekela Nentuthuko Kwamankantolo Aphakeme Amuva

Inkundla yeNkantolo Ephakeme evikela ekuvikelekeni kobukhosi isasebenza, nezinqumo zamuva ezithambekele ekunciphiseni ukugonywa kukahulumeni emongweni oqondile.

Ku-Pennnn East Pippine Co. v. New Jersey (2021]), iNkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi uhulumeni wezwe ungawaphathi amandla awo okubusa aphezulu ezinkampanini ezizimele, nokuthi lamandla anqoba uhulumeni wezomthetho wokuvikela. INkantolo yacabanga ukuthi lapho i-United States isebenzisa amandla ayo omthetho womthetho wokulahla, imibuso yanikezela isombuluko kuyo "isigungu seNgqungquthela." Lemikhawulo ibeka imingcele eveza ukuvikeleka kwayo emongweni yemisebenzi yezesisekelo sombuso.

.Umnyango weTexas we-Precurety [202], iNkantolo yasebenzisa inkolelo efanayo "yokufundisa" eMthethweni Wenkonzo Efakiweyo neRespourment Rights Act (USERRA). INkantolo yathi iTexas yayingengokuzivikela esubeni elethwa isisebenzi sikahulumeni ngaphansi kuka-MestanaRRA ngoba igunya likahulumeni elingokomthetho phezu kwesimiso sokhuseleko nemisebenzi yezempi lidinga izivumelwano eziphelele zokuvuma lala maphepha eshendeni.

Lezi zimo zibonisa ukuthambekela okukhulayo: nakuba ukugonyelwa kwesimiso sobukhosi obuvamile kuhlala kunamandla ezimpikiswaneni zezentengiselwano ezivamile, kungaba sengozini kakhulu uma amandla omthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni abaliwe ("njengendlela yokuvikela yesizwe, umthetho wezentengiselwano wezwe, noma indawo edumile yemisebenzi yomphakathi"iyimbangela yomphakathi. I-Litig kufanele ibheke ukunwetshwa okwengeziwe "kwe-tellal arver" noma "icebo le- Convention" ngaphandle.

Izinqubo Eziwusizo Zokusakaza Izinkanyezi

Phambi kokufaka ishende ngokumelene nenhlangano ekholelwa ukuthi iyibhizinisi likahulumeni, abameli kufanele bahlole ngokuhluza okuqinile ngaphambi kokuhlelwa kwezincwadi:

  1. Isimo seNkathi ye-Boom: nquma uma lento iyingalo yombuso. Hlaziya uhlelo lwemithetho, izinqubo zokuxhasa izimali, nezinga lokulawula kombuso. Uma lenhlangano iyinhlangano kamasipala noma isifunda sezensebe lezethu, ukunqanda ukunqanda kweNguquko kweshumi nanye ngokunokwenzeka akusebenzi.
  2. Imelela Imbangela Yesenzo: Uma iphuzu livela ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni, qinisekisa ukuthi uMkhandlu unesimiso sokuzivikela esigunyaziwe. Uma ukuzisholo kuyi-mthetho kazwelonke (umz., ukwephulwa kwesivumelwano), hlola ukuthi uhulumeni uwenqabe yini ezinkantolo zawo siqu.
  3. Detemine iForum efanelekile: Ngezinye izikhathi i-forum kuphela esebenzayo inkantolo kahulumeni. Ungathathi inkantolo kahulumeni ilungile ngoba icala lihilela umbuzo kahulumeni. Hlola umthetho kahulumeni ophathelene nesimiso sokuvikela ukuvikela uhulumeni futhi.
  4. Funa Impumuzo e-Prospect: Uma intethelelo yemali ivaliwe, cabangela ukuthi ukusho kungabuye kulungiswe yini ukukhululeka okulindelekile kukhululeke kumphathi kahulumeni ngaphansi . Lokhu kudinga ukukhomba ukwephulwa okuqhubekayo komthetho kahulumeni.
  5. Isihenqo seWaiver: Funa "inzuzo futhi ubekwe icala" ezikhombelweni zenhlangano ezenza umthetho. Kuhlolele ukuthi i-'quatation' ibekwe ngaphambili enkantolo kahulumeni ngaphandle kokuphakamisa isivikelo sokuvikela.

Isiphetho

Ukuzivikela kombuso kuhlala kungesinye sezimfundiso eziyinkimbinkimbi nezibaluleke kakhulu ekuhlaziyweni kwemithetho. Kulabo abafuna ukulwa namabhizinisi kahulumeni, ukuzivikela akusona isiphelo esifile, kodwa kudinga ukuqondisa ngokucophelela kwemithetho kahulumeni nombuso. Umehluko phakathi kwengozi nempumuzo enzima, ulimi oluqondile lwemithetho kahulumeni, kanye nesakhiwo esiyingqayizivele se-SOE ngokwayo konke kunquma ukuthi indaba ingaqhubeka yini. Njengoba izinqumo zamuva nje ezinqunywe yiNkantolo ePhakathi ziqhubeka zicwe imingcele ye-gationalism, ukugcinwa kulamandla asemthethweni kubalulekile ukuze kuphumelele izinhlangano zezentengiselwano zikahulumeni ezilawulwa yizwelo.