Ingozi ephindwe kabili, eyaziwayo ezimisweni eziningi zomthetho njenge amabis [i-inteence] (ngesi-Latin "kuphinde kabili kulelo hlelo"), iyisivikelo esiyisisekelo esivikela umuntu ekumangalelweni, ukuzanywa, noma ukujeziswa ngaphezu kwesisodwa ngenxa yecala elifanayo. Nakuba lesi simiso sibekwe kahle ezindaweni ezingokomthetho zesizwe, zenzakaliswe ngokwezimo zemithetho ye-Diversethi ye-United States noma iSiphakamiso 50 se-Charter yamaLungelo amalungelo angokomthetho womhlaba wonke, futhi ifaka umbiko wemithetho yezizwe zonke welungelo, ikakhulukazi emongokwamalungelo ezivumelwano ezihlangeneyo. Izesikhathi sokuvikelwa kwemithetho yomhlaba wonke, isilinganiso sezemithetho evimbela ukuvikelwa, futhi imingcele ebanzi, ukuphikisana kwemithetho yezizwe zonke. Le sivumelwano sigcizelela izivumelwano ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezisemthethweni.

Intuthuko Engokomlando Yengozi Ekabili EMthethweni Wezizwe Zonke

Umsuka wengozi ephindwe kabili ungatholakala emuva emthethweni wamaRoma futhi kamuva kumthetho wesiNgisi ovamile, lapho ukunxusa [ku- autrefois Conrect ne iziboshwa zecala ezilula eziqinile [[ zavala icala lesibili ngemva kokulahlwa noma ukuvunyelwa. Nokho, ukufakwa kwalesimiso ezivumelwaneni zamalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke kuyintuthuko yanamuhla, ivela ngemva kweMpi Yezwe II. I-Nuremberg I-Tremberg, ngokwesibonelo, iphakamisa imibuzo eyinkimbinkimbi ngokuthi abantu bangaphinde baqulwe yini ngenkantolo yezizwe ngemva kwenkantolo yomhlaba wonke. Nakuba isimiso singagunyazwanga ngokugcwele ngaleso sikhathi, isidingo sokuvimbela ukuhlukunyezwa ngokuphindaphindwa.

ISivumelwano somhlaba wonke samalungelo abantu (UDHR) sango-1948 asiyisho ngokuqondile izingozi eziphindwe kabili, kodwa sabeka isisekelo sokulunga komthetho esiSiphakamiso 10, esiqinisekisa ukuqulwa komthetho olungile nomphakathi. Isivumelwano sokuqala esibophayo sezizwe zonke sokuhlanganisa ilungiselelo elicacile lengozi kabili kwakuyisiSivumelwano sezizwe zonke samaLungu namalungelo ezombangazwe (ICCPR), esamukelwa ngo-19666 futhi saqala ukusebenza ngo-19669. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, amathuluzi amalungelo abantu esifundayo aye alandela ngokuhambelana nezimiso zawo ezingokomthetho nezombangazwe. Umlando owenziwayo walezi zivumelwano wembula umzamo wamaphutha wokulinganisela ilungelo lomuntu nesithakazelo sokugcina sombuso ekwahluleleni lapho kuvela ubufakazi obusha noma ebunkolweni obungahlelile.

Izivikelo Ze - core Ezahlulelweni Eziyinhloko Zamalungelo Abantu Emhlabeni Wonke

Izivumelwano eziningana eziphawulekayo manje sezisiqinisekisa isimiso sokufaka engozini kabili, nakuba ulimi oluqondile nobukhulu buhlukile.

Isivumelwano Somhlaba Wonke Ngamalungelo Omphakathi Nangokwezombangazwe (ICCPR)

ISiphakamiso 14, isigaba 7 se-ICCPR sithi: Akukho muntu ozophinde aqulwe noma ajeziswe ngenxa yecala ayeselahlwe ngalo noma akhululwe ngenxa yenqubo yomthetho nesijeziso sezwe ngalinye. Lelilungiselelo libopha amazwe angu 173 agunyaza izivumelwano. IKomiti yamalungelo omphakathi, indikimba yesivumelwano ehlola i-ICPR iyavuma noma ikhiphe icala, ikhiphe u-No. 32 ngelungelo lokuqulwa kobulungisa, okuchaza izinga leSigaba 14(7). Ikomiti ichazi ukuthi ivikela izahlulelo zokugcina, izinqumo eziqonde ukudluliswa kokudluliswa kokudluliswa. Nokho, ayibuyiseli ubufakazi bokukhishwa kwecala (ukukhishwa ngokulunga) noma ngokufakwa ngenqubo engokomthetho.

Okubalulekile ukuthi, isisho se-ICCPR sokwehlelwa kwengozi kabili sisebenza esifundeni esifanayo. Asisebenzi, ebusweni bayo, ukuqulwa kwecala kwesibili ngesimo esihlukile sokuziphatha okufanayo ($a umngcele osho okukhulu obangela ubugebengu obungaphinde bufike emhlabeni wonke. Noma kunjalo, iKomiti yamaLungelo obuntu iye yakhuthaza amazwe ukuba acabangele isimiso ezicabeni zokubambisana kwezizwe zonke.

Isivumelwano SaseYurophu Samalungelo Abantu (ECHR) – Isivumelwano No. 7

ISiphakamiso 4 se-Protocol No. 7 se-ECHR sinikeza: Akukho ozobekwa icala noma ajeziswe futhi ezinkantolo zobugebengu ngaphansi kwegunya elifanayo lombuso wokulawula. Izehlulelo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa uSergey Zoukhin v. [FLT] .[2009] [[FLT] [iNkantolo] Inkantolo yaseYurophu yelungelo lokwamukeleka amalungelo abantu] isungule i-jurisprine ekhona kule lungiselelo. Izehlulelo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa uSuktin v.[FLT][FLT][3] [2009], lapho iNkahlulelo ithola khona ukuthi inqubo ehlangeneyo noma esekelwe emahlelweni angokomthetho afanayo, i-'inquluntembe" i-" i-" i-" i-romotestvodrome "kust" i-se-se-se-se-se-se-se-se-se

I-Protocol No. 7 isho futhi ukuthi ilungelo alikuvimbeli ukuvuleka kwezenzakalo ezintsha noma ezisanda kutholwa uma amaqiniso amasha, noma ukukhubazeka okuyisisekelo kwezenzakalo zangaphambili, kungathinta umphumela. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ilungiselelo lisebenza kuphela phakathi kwegunya lombuso ofanayo, lishiye amathuba okuqulwa kwesibili komunye umbuso noma inkantolo yomhlaba wonke. Lokhu bekuyindaba yempikiswano, ikakhulukazi emongweni we-Europe Battle Warrants kanye nesimiso sokuqaphelana.

Umhlangano WaseMelika Ophathelene Namalungelo Abantu

ISiphakamiso 8, isigaba 4 se-American Convention on Human Rights sithi: " Umuntu omangalelwe angabi nacala ngesinqumo esingathandeki ngeke abekwe icala elisha ngesizathu esifanayo. Inkantolo yase-American-Continean Rights ichaze lelilungiselelo kabanzi. Allelacid Arellano v. [200] [iNkakhulu], iNkantolo ikholelwa ukuthi izingozi eziphindwe kabili zisebenza nasemithethweni engcono evimbela ukuqulwa kwelungelo ngokomthetho ephula amalungelo abantu, nakuba le ndawo iyindawo eyinkimbinkimbi. Isinqumo esingekho mthethweni sisho ukuthi imvume yokugcina i-avreatton, uma iphuma ngisho nobufakazi obusha ngaphansi kwe-CRCR, kodwa ivimbela ukuvinjelwa okungantentelwe phakathi kwecala, ukuvinjelwa okungamele ukuvikelwa kwecala phakathi kwabantu, futhi ikhiphe esiqinile ekuvinjelwe ekuvinye isigwebo sokuvinjelwe ekuboneni. Inkantolo, kunganqanyulwa kwe

Ezinye Izivumelwano Zesifunda

Ikhathi lase-Afrika eMalungeni Obuntu Nabantu aliqukethe iqoqo elicacile lezingozi eziphindwe kabili, kodwa i-Afrika Commission on Human and People’s Rights iqinise isivikelo kwesokudla sokuya ekuqulweni okulungile ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso 7. [[FLT:]] Ikhathi le-Arab eNgamalungelo abantu [ lihlanganisa ilungiselelo eliseSiphakathini se-19 eliqinisekisa ilungelo lokungazanywa kabili icala elifanayo, nakuba izimiso zalo zokulawula zinokuthuthuka kancane. [[FLT:]] Icala eliyinhloko lamaLungu e-Union Union [[FLT] [FLT] [FLT], eSiphakathini se-50], liqukethe inguquko ebanzi "ngenze i-Ubumba le-Unionsult Union" futhi lichazwe ngeMinya yeMibuso yeMibuso yeNkathi yeNkanto ehlangene yaseYurophu, ihlelwe ngokuphindiwe.[Fogculo liphinde kabili.]

Ukwelinganiselwa Kwalesimiso

Nakuba izivumelwano zamalungelo abantu zinikeza isivikelo esiqinile, izinga lezingozi eziphindwe kabili aliphelele.

Isivivinyo se-"Samese"

Impikiswano enzima yiyona ebizwa ngokuthi "icala elifanayo." izinkantolo zesizwe nezindikimba zesivumelwano ziye zamukela ukuhlola okuhlukene. Abanye bagxila ezicini ezingokomthetho zobugebengu (izivivinyo "zomthetho"), kuyilapho ezinye, njenge European Court of Human Rights, zibheka ekuziphatheni okungaphansi. Indlela yamuva ibanzi futhi ivikela kangcono abantu ukuba bangamangalelwa ngaphansi kwezimpawu ezihlukene ezingokomthetho zesenzo esifanayo. Ngokwesibonelo, umuntu oshayela ngokunganaki futhi abulale izinyawo angase abekwe icala lokubulala abantu ngokuhleka ihlasele kwelinye izwe kodwa abangele ukufa ngokushayela ngenye imoto eyingozi. Ngaphansi kovivinyo lokuziphatha okuqinile, ukuqulwa kwecala kwesibili kungavinjelwa uma isenzo sokuqala siphela ngokukhohliswa kokugcina noma ukukhohliswa.

Izihlukaniso Zobufakazi Obusha Noma Iziphakamiso Zemvelo

Izivumelwano eziningi zivumela ukuvuleka icala uma kunobufakazi obuqinile bokungalungi. I-ICCPR’S Declarant No. 32 iphawula ukuthi iSiphakamiso 14(7) "akwenqabeli ukuvulwa kwecala ngenxa yobulungisa." i-ECHR’S Protocol No. 7 ngokucacile isho ukuthi ilungiselelo alithinteli ukuvuleka uma kuvela amaqiniso amasha noma ukukhubazeka okuyisisekelo. Nokho, i-American Convention, echazwa yi-Inter-American-American Court, ngokuvamile ivimbela ukuvulwa ngemva kwe-eright engenakukhonzwa, ngaphandle kwezimo ezilinganiselwe kakhulu njengokukhohlisa noma ukukhohlakala isahlulelo ngokwaso.

Ukuphambana Okukabili Kwezizwe Zonke

Mhlawumbe umngcele obaluleke kakhulu uwukuthi izivumelwano zamalungelo abantu zivame ukuvala icala lesibili esizweni esisodwa. Lokhu kusho ukuthi umuntu okhululiwe noma olahlwe icala kwelinye izwe angabekwa icala lokuziphatha okufanayo kwelinye izwe, ngaphandle kokuba isivumelwano esihlukile (njengemithetho yokuqaphelana kwe-European Union) inikeza okuhlukile. Leligebe liyinkinga ikakhulukazi ngenxa yobugebengu obunjengokonakala, ukushushumbisa izidakamizwa, nobuphekula, lapho imibuso eminingi ingaba negunya khona. Ukukhuluma ngalokhu, izivumelwano ezithile zamuva nezeziningi zihlanganisa amalungiselelo ngokuphathelene nezahlulelo zokugcina zamazwe angaphandle, kodwa akukho umthetho wendawo yonke okhona.

Ukuphambana Okukabili Ezinhlanganweni Zezigebengu Zezizwe Zonke

Isimiso sokwehlelwa kabili sisebenza futhi emthetho wezizwe zonke wobugebengu, lapho ngokuvamile ubizwa khona ngokuthi amabine ewubuwula. Izinkantolo zomhlaba wonke, njenge International Criminal Court (ICC), i-International Criminal Tribunal ye-yangaphambili ye-Yugoslavia (ICTY), ne-International Criminal Tribunal eRwanda (ICTRT), ziye zasungula imithetho yazo.

Isimiso SaseRoma SeNkantolo Yesigebengu Yomhlaba Wonke

ISiphakamiso 20 se-Rome Sigconstent uNes kusifazane , sinikeza: [[FLT:]] Akukho muntu ozoqulwa phambi kweNkantolo ngokuqondene nokuziphatha okwakhe isisekelo sobugebengu umuntu abekwe icala noma akhululwe ngecala. Isho ukuthi akekho umuntu ozoqulwa icala lobugebengu phakathi kwe-ICCBC uma i-IC iseke ukuthi umuntu ubekwe icala lokuziphatha okufanayo. Nokho, okuphawulekayo kukhona: uma imicimbi yasekhaya iklanyelwe ukuvikela umuntu enkantolo yobugebengu, noma ukulawulwa ngokungakhethi, noma ukuqulwa ngokuzenziswa, kungaqhubekeka lelicala. I-ICRIP iyakuhluleka ukuveza "ukuzama" ukuveza i-enzipho ekhonzile.

Ngokwesibonelo, i-ICTY STIGNTY ne-Authorian ivimbela kokubili izinkantolo zeTribunal nezwe ukuba zinqande umuntu ngemva kokwahlulela kokugcina kweTribunal, kodwa ivumela iTribunal ukuba iphikise umuntu uma icala lenkantolo yesizwe liyihlazo. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi abakhi bonyandi bonya olukhulu abanakuphunyuka ngokuxhaphaza amatyala esizwe.

Ukungqubuzana Kokusola

Indaba enzima kakhulu emthetho wezwe lonke wobugebengu, ukusebenzelana kwezwe nezwe. Ngokwesibonelo, uma inkantolo yezwe ikhipha icala lomuntu lokuqothulwa kohlanga ngenxa yobufakazi obunganele, ingabe i-ICC kamuva ingammangalela lowo muntu ngezenzo ezifanayo? Ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso 20(3) se-Statu yeRome, i-IC ingaqhubeka kuphela uma izigijimi zesizwe zihloselwe ukuvikela abamangalelwa. Lokhu kulinganisela ngokucophelela ngokuhlonipha ubukhosi bukazwe kanye nesidingo sokuqeda isijeziso.

Ukuhlangana Nezimiso Zezomthetho Zesizwe

Izinkantolo zesizwe ngokuvamile zibhekene nombuzo wokuthi kufanele yini ihloniphe izingozi eziphindwe kabili zakwamanye amazwe. Emazweni amaningi omthetho ovamile, isimiso so"ubugebengu" asiqashelwa ngokuzenzekelayo ezahlulelweni zakwamanye amazwe. Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo ePhakeme yase-United States, i-Gaggger v. i-United States [2029], iphinde iqinisekise imfundiso "yobukhondla", evumela kokubili ohulumeni bombuso nohulumeni ukuba bamangalele umuntu ngokokuziphatha okufanayo. Ngokufanayo, umthetho wezizwe zonke azidingi ukuba zibophelele ukumangalela umuntu uma umbuso wangaphandle usumzamile kakade, ngaphandle kokuba isivumelwano sinikeze kanjalo.

Nokho, ukuthambekela kunakho ukuqashelwa kakhulu. I-European Union ikhuluphele kakhulu, neSiphakamiso 50 se-Chater of Fundamental Rights ne-Schengen acquis ezifuna ukuba amazwe angamalungu ahloniphe izahlulelo zokugcina ezivela kwamanye amazwe asemacaleni ahilela ukuziphatha okufanayo. Lokhu kuqiniswa yi-European Priny Warrantsactal system, ehlanganisa indawo yokwenqaba uma umuntu esehlulelwe ekugcineni. Ngaphandle kweYurophu, isimiso asisungulwanga kahle, kodwa amanye amazwe (njengeCanada ne-Australia) anemithetho noma imiphumela yokugwetshwa kwamanye amazwe ngaphansi kwezimo ezithile.

Izinselele Nezinkinga Zangesikhathi Esidlule

Naphezu kwentuthuko, kusenezinselele eziningana ezisetshenziswayo ekusebenziseni izingozi eziphindwe kabili emthethweni wamalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke.

Ubugebengu Nobufakazi Bezinombolo

Ngokukhula kwezezenzo zobugebengu ze-inthanethi, imibuso eminingi ingase ilawule isenzo esifanayo (isinye, ukuhlasela okungalawuleki okuvela kwelinye izwe elihlasela izisulu kwezinye eziningi). Ingozi yokuqulwa kwemishuwalense ingokoqobo. Ukubambisana kwezizwe zonke njengeBudapest Convention on Cybercrime ayiyidingi ngokuphelele izingozi eziphindwe kabili, kushiye abantu besengozini yokuhlukunyezwa ngokusemthethweni.

Ukulwa Nobuphekula Nokulondeka Kwesizwe

Ngemva kokuhlasela kwamaphekula, ezinye izifundazwe ziye zazama ukuphinde zizame abantu asebekhululwe kakade kwenye indawo, zicaphuna amandla amakhulu ecala. Abasekeli bamalungelo abantu baphikisa ngokuthi lokhu kululaza isimiso sokugcina. Umbango phakathi kokulondeka kwesizwe kanye nezingozi eziphindwe kabili cishe ungaba ngcono njengoba imibuso ithatha imithetho emelene nobugebengu.

Umthetho Wokutshala Imali Emhlabeni Wonke

Indawo eqalayo ukuhlangana kwezingozi ezimbili nokuphikisana kwezemali (ISDS). Uma inkampani imangalelwa ngobugebengu kwelinye izwe ngenxa yomonakalo wendawo ezungezile, ingamangalelwa kwesinye isifunda ngaphansi kwesivumelwano sokutshala imali sokuziphatha okufanayo? Izinkantolo ze-Arbitral azikasunguli indlela engaguquki, kodwa lendaba ithinta izindinganiso eziyinhloko zokugcina nokulunga.

Isiphetho

Izivumelwano zamalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke zinikeza isisekelo esibalulekile sokuvikela abantu ezingozini eziphindwe kabili emhlabeni wonke. I-ICCPR, ECHR, i-American Convention, kanye namanye amathuluzi amisa imithetho ecacile evimbela ukuboshwa komuntu noma ukujeziswa ngokuphindaphindiwe ngenxa yecala elifanayo. Nokho, lesi simiso asiphelele: ngaphandle kobufakazi obusha, ukushiyeka kobuncane, namacala angajeziswayo aqinisekisa ukuthi ubulungisa bungaqhubeka. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuntula komthetho wendawo yonke ngengozi ephindwe kabili ezindaweni ezihlukene kuhlala kuyigebelele elikhulu, ikakhulukazi ngenxa yobugebengu obubodwa.

Njengoba ukuhwebelana kwembulunga yonke kushesha futhi izimiso zomthetho zihlangana, isidingo sokuvumelanisa izingozi eziphindwe kabili eziqenjini ezisezandleni zomthetho siyokhula. izinkantolo zomhlaba wonke ziye zabonisa ukuthi kungenzeka ukulinganisela ukulandisa ngecala, futhi izinhlangano zezigodi ezinjenge European Union ziye zasungula izindlela zokuqaphelana. Ukuze amalungelo abantu ahlonishwe ngokugcwele, izigungu kumelwe ziqhubeke zithuthukisa izimiso zokubambisana ezivimbela ukuqulwa kwemishuwa kwemishuwa exhaphazayo kuyilapho zishiya indawo yezindawo zokuzingatshazwa ngokusemthethweni ngenzuzo yobulungisa. Ukuqonda la malungiselelo esifundazwe abalulekile kodokotela, abenzi bemithetho nanoma ubani okhathalela umthetho ezweni eliyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu.