Indima Eyisisekelo Yomthetho - sisekelo

I-United States Constitution, eyagunyazwa ngo-1788 ngemva kokulwela kanzima uzibuthe, ihlala ingumthetho ophakeme wezwe. Abahleli bayo, abangabaza kakhulu igunya elibekwe phakathi, baklama isimiso esizonika uhulumeni wesizwe amandla ngaso lesosikhathi futhi siwucindezelele ekufinyeleleni. Lenjongo ehlukene-kabili . Ukusungula uhulumeni osebenzayo ngesikhathi esifanayo kuyilapho uvikela inkululeko nombuso ngamunye wezwe ngokuwumbuso kuqhubekela phambili. Emzamweni wawo, uMthetho-sisekelo uyisivumelwano sikahulumeni olinganiselwe, isivumelwano esihlanganisa imibuso ethile nesinye imibuso ehlukene nesizwe. Lesi sihloko sihlola indlela uhulumeni womthetho womthetho owenziwe ngayo kanye nohulumeni owenziwe ngokuqhubekayo.

Ukuqonda lezisivikelo kubalulekile ku isakhamuzi ngasinye. UMthetho-sisekelo awusona isimiso esivamile kodwa uyisisekelo esiphilayo esichazwa njalo izinkantolo, abamisi-mthetho, nabashisekeli. Kusukela ekuhlukaneni kwemibuso kuya eSivumelwaneni samalungelo abantu nasezigqizibeni zeMpi Yomphakathi, ungqimba ngalunye lwenezela ukujula ekuvikeleni ekubushiseni nasekucwaseni. Ngokuhlola lezi zinqubo, sibona ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo uhlala uyithuluzi elibalulekile lokulondoloza inkululeko nokuqinisekisa ubulungisa kubo bonke abantu.

Ukuhlukana Kwamandla: Igunya Lokuhlukanisa Igunya Lokuvimbela Ukubusa

Abadwebi bezakhiwo, bedweba ngefilosofi yezombangazwe kaMontesquieu kanye nokuhlangenwe nakho kwabo siqu kwamakoloni, baqonda ukuthi amandla agxile aholela ekuxhashazweni. ISiphakamiso I, II, no III soMthetho-sisekelo bakha amagatsha amathathu ahlukene kahulumeni, ngalinye elinemisebenzi yalo eyinhloko. Lokhu kuhlukana akusona nje isivimbeli sokubusa kodwa kuyisithiyo sangamabomu kunoma yimuphi umuntu oziqongelelela kakhulu.

Igatsha Elinomthetho (Ikhono I)

ISishaya-mthetho, esibunjwe yiNdlu yabameleli neSigele, sinikwe amandla okwenza imithetho. Ukhetho oluqondile lwendlu ngabantu luqinisekisa ukulandisa okuthandwayo, kuyilapho iSigele (esakhethwa yizishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni ekuqaleni) simelela izithakazelo zezwe. Amandla okushaya umthetho alinganiselwa kakhulu yi [ Amandla anamandla acushiwe [ abekweyo] eSiphakathini I, i-galelo lesi 8, elilinganisela i-Candelo ezikhulwini ezithile ezinjengemali yokukhokha izigela, ukuqondisa intengiselwano yezentengiselwano, ukumemezela impi, nokuphakamisa ibutho. ISimende se-Promende se-Platempli siqinisa lomngcele: agunya agunyazwe i-United States agcinelwe ezindaweni noma abantu.

Igatsha Eliphethe (Article II)

UMongameli ubekwa icala lokumisa imithetho edluliswa yiSishaya-Mkhandlu. UMthetho-sisekelo ubeka amandla aphethe kumuntu oyedwa, ebangela ukulandisa kodwa futhi edinga ukuhlolwa. UMongameli u-veto amandla omthetho ukuhlolwa okuphambili, kodwa ulinganiswa nekhono loKhongolo-kulawula i-veto ne-35 ye-agnomential. Umqondisi futhi ulawula ibutho lezempi njengoMphathi-iNdlungu-Chief, kodwa iNgqungquthela kuphela engamemezela impi − ukulinganiselwa okungathí qha ukuvimbela ukufika kwempi okungahlangene.

Igatsha Lokwahlulela (Article III)

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni, eziholwa yiNkantolo Ephakeme, zichaza umthetho futhi zixazulule izimpikiswano. Amandla okubukeza amiswanga embhalweni wokuqala kodwa enkantolo ewuphawu amabury v. Madison [1803] [igunya]). Leligunya livumela izinkantolo ukuba zinqume imithetho noma izenzo zezikhulu eziphula umthetho. Nakuba abahluleli bemiswe ngenxa yokuphila (ngendlela elungile yokuziphatha), bamiswa nguMongameli futhi baqinisekiswa yiSigebe, baveza ukulandisa kwezombangazwe. Uzibutheli we-judiary ubalulekile ukuze zivikele abantu abambalwa ekuxhashazweni okukhulu.

Ngokuhlukanisa amandla phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu alinganayo, uMthetho-sisekelo uqinisekisa ukuthi alikho igatsha elingabusa. Igatsha ngalinye linembulunga yalo, futhi ngalinye lixhomeke kwezinye ukusebenza (ukungezwani kwamabomu okubambezela ukuthatha isinyathelo sikahulumeni kanye namandla kuyekelele.

Amasheke Nokulinganisela Okusetshenziswayo

Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso kuqiniswa ulwembu lwemithwalo yemfanelo ehlanekezelwe. Igatsha ngalinye linamathuluzi okumelana nokungezwani nezinye, kudala ukulinganisela okukhulu okuye kwabhekana nobunzima obusuka eMpini Yangaphakathi kuya ehlazweni laseWatergate.

Ukuhlola Okungokomthetho Amandla Okuqondisa Nawokwahlulela

UKhomishane uphethe amandla esikhwameni .Ayikho imali engasetshenziswa ngaphandle kokudluliswa kwemiboniso. Ingahlola izenzo zobuphathi ngokuzwa nangamapena. ISigele siqinisekisa ukumiswa komongameli (abahluleli, amanxusa, amanxusa, amanxusa) nokuhlobanisa izivumelwano. Ngokuphawulekayo, uMkhandlu ungamgodla uMongameli, uMongameli, nomthetho omkhulu (Izigwebo, noma ezinye izigebengu eziphakeme ze-Crimears,). Lenqubo, esetshenziswa ngokungethungahleleki, ihlala iyisigwebo esinamandla. Ngokwesibonelo, ukungameli kukaMongameli u-Andrentia Johnson (1868) kanye nokulahla umongameli we-Nix Richard (1974)) ekhomba ukubusa.

Isikhulu Esiphethe Sihlola Amandla Angokomthetho Nawokwahlulela

UMongameli angafaka izindleko, aphoqelele uKhongolo ukuba luphinde luphinde luthathe umthetho. Uma i-veto ephindwe kathathu kuzo zombili izindlu ivumelana, iveto ingangagculiswa, kodwa usongo luvame ukuhlela ukuhlehliswa kwemithetho. UMongameli futhi unawo amandla [ okulawula emacala kahulumeni, anikeza i-exakelo ngobukhulu bomthetho, njengoba kuboniswa kuMongameli Gerald Ford's Ford's Creart Nixon.

Ukwahlulela Kuhlola Amandla Angokomthetho Nawabaqondisi

Ngenkathi yokubukeza okungokwesiko, izinkantolo zinquma ukuthi imithetho noma iziyalezo eziphethe zivumelana noMthetho-sisekelo. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme singumthetho intsha eshaye i-Stown sheep & Lamp; Tube Co. Sayer (1952]) yavala ukuthumba kukaMongameli Truman phakathi neMpi yaseKorea, iqinisekisa ukuthi ngisho nezenzo zikamongameli wesikhathi sempi zidinga igunya lomthetho-mfakela noma i-mthetho. Muva nje, [[FLTLT:]] Imvume ye Homend Security. Regents of University of California [Foct:20])

Le mishini yokuhlola ehlangeneyo yenza isimiso lapho ugesi uqhubeka khona. Alikho igatsha elingathatha isinyathelo ngaphandle kokuxhumana isikhathi eside, futhi noma imuphi umzamo wokunqwabelana amandla ungavinjelwa elinye igatsha. Lokhu kuyisivikelo esiyinhloko soMthetho-sisekelo kuhulumeni ophambanayo.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Abantu: Imingcele Engekho Ekwakheni Uhulumeni

UMthetho-sisekelo wokuqala wawungenawo umthetho wamalungelo, ukuntuleka okucishe kunqamule ukuvunyelwa. Ukuze uqinisekise, iSishaya-mthetho sokuqala sahlongoza ukubuyiselwa kwezenzo eziyishumi nambili, okuyishumi kuzo kwagunyazwa ngo-1791 njengeBhili yamalunge. Lezi zinguquko ziwenqabela ngokuqondile uhulumeni kahulumeni ukuba angaphuthi ezinhlwini ezithile, ukubeka iziphakamiso ezingokomthetho [[FLT]] ezisenzweni zomthetho nezokuphatha.

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala: Idwala Lokuphila Kwentando Yeningi

UKhomishane ngeke yenze mthetho ngokuphathelene nokumiswa kwenkolo, noma ukunqabela ukusetshenziswa kwayo ngenkululeko; noma ukuvimbela inkululeko yokukhuluma, noma yezindaba; noma ilungelo labantu lokuhlangana ngokuthula, nokunxusa uhulumeni ukuba alungise izikhalo. Le nguquko eyodwa ivikela imisebenzi eyisisekelo yentando yeningi: ikhono lokugxeka uhulumeni, ukwenza ushintsho lwenkolo, nokuhlela ushintsho. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasekela njalo ukuthi iSichibiyelo Sokuqala sisebenza ngeSimemezelo se 14nethi (imposo). Icala elingase-Roundation (i-Prefected). Icala elinjenge-[FLT: 0] i-New York Times. Cov. [FLD:1] [196] [196]) i-1964] ivikela ukugxeka izikhululogosa zezikhulu zezikhulu, [2] ne-UnitedCT][5][5]

ISichibiyelo Sesine: Ukuba Wedwa Nenqubo Efanele

Ilungelo labantu lokuphepha kubantu babo, izindlu, amaphepha, nemiphumela emelene nokuphenya okungacabangeli nokuquleka ngeke kwephulwe. Lelilungiselelo lidinga ukuqiniswa komthetho ukuze uthole izivumelwano ezisekelwe ku [ izimbangela ezingenakuxazululwa[. [[FLT:] umthetho [[FLT]] [FLT]] [FLT]] [[FLT]] [2]], osungulwe [[FLT] [i], [useke] [umthetho] we-week v v v.[FLT] [i-FLT] [i] [indlela] [indlela] ebanzi yokulinganisa ukuphila.] [indlela yanamuhla] [indlela], ifaka ubufakazi obuthola ukuncibilika kwe-Dintshi ye-Dintshisi esetshenziswa enkathini esetshenziswayokulolu suku.[5] [ikhasime: [ithensi:] [Ft]

Izinqumo Zesihlanu Nezesithupha: Ukulunga Kwezigebengu

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu sivikela ekuzihlaseleni ngokwaso (ilungelo lokuthula), izingozi eziphindwe kabili, nokuncishwa kokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho. ISiThathu seSichibiyelo siqinisekisa ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala elisheshayo nelingokomthetho, ijaji elingakhethi, usizo lweseluleko, nelungelo lokunikeza ofakazi. Lamalungelo aqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni akanakubajezisa abantu ngabanye ngokungenamthetho. Ilungelo lokululeka landiswa ngokudume kakhulu Gideon v. Wainright[, ifuna ukuba kunikezwe abameli abamangalelwa abangakwazi ukukhokhela abantu.

ISichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili: Unya Nesijeziso Esingavamile

Ibheyili enkulu ngeke idingeke, noma isijeziso esinzima kakhulu esibekwe, noma isijeziso esinesihluku nesingavamile esiye senziwa. Lokhu kulunga kukhonjiwe ukuze kulinganiswe isijeziso sokufa (isimo, Furman v. Georgia[] ngo-1971 isijeziso sentambo yesigwebo sesikhashana esinqanyuliwe) nokubekela inselele izimo zasejele. Nakuba lengxoxo iqhubeka ngobukhulu be-"cruel nobungavamile," ukuqedwa kwesijeziso sikahulumeni kubeka isisekelo sokuziphatha sokuthi isijeziso sikahulumeni asinakuba yisifa elibi.

IBhili of Rights isebenza njengomthetho - sisekelo ophambene: itshela uhulumeni ukuthi ungakwazi ukwenzani.

Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nane: Isivikelo Esilinganayo Nenqubo Efanele

Ngemva kweMpi Yangaphakathi, uMthetho-sisekelo wabuye wamiswa ngokuyisisekelo yiziNguquko zokuvuselelwa kwezwe, ikakhulukazi iSichibiyelo se 145 (1868). Ingxenye 1 iyamemezela: “Bonke abantu abazelwe noma abadalwe e-United States, futhi abangaphansi kwegunya labo, bayizakhamuzi ze-United States nezwe lapho behlala khona. Akukho Zwe elizokwenza noma ukuphoqelela noma yimuphi umthetho ozovimbela amalungelo noma ukugonyela kwezakhamuzi zase-United States; futhi nanoma yimuphi uMbuso ngeke uthathe noma imuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho; noma ukuphika umuntu ongaphansi kwesivikelo esilinganayo semithetho."""

Ukuvikela UClaus Ngokulinganayo

I- QUEal Protection Claus iyinjini yomthetho-sisekelo yokulwa nobandlululo. Iye yasetshenziselwa ukushaya imithetho ephatha abantu ngokwehlukile ngokwezinhlanga, ubulili, nezinye izigaba ezisolwayo. Imfundiso ye ye-listerstual isebenza lapho umthetho ubeka isigaba se-"suspect" (imvelaphi yesizwe) noma inqaba kwesoku kwesokudla esiyisisekelo ``uhulumeni kumelwe ubonise isithakazelo esinesibopho futhi umthetho ufanele uphumelele.

Izehlakalo ezingokweziqu zamagama zihlanganisa Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954), eyamemezela imithetho yezwe ehlukanisayo emisa izikole zomphakathi kubafundi abamnyama nabamhlophe. INkantolo yathi "izemfundo ezihlukene azilingani." lesi sinqumo sayilahla i "imfundiso kodwa iyalingana" ku v.[FLT] [1866] futhi samisa amalungelo abantu. [5] Icala elifana [[FLT] i-ogggn.V[5] v[5] [67] (19]) yahlasela ukuvinjelwa komshado okungakwesokudla.[FLT]

Izinhlelo ezilindelekile

I-Secreate Process Claus inezilinganiso ezimbili: inqubo efanelekile e-procedational ne-padtation. Inqubo efanelekile idinga izinqubo ezilungile lapho uhulumeni ephuca othile ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla (‘notice, ukuzwa, nomenzi wesinqumo ongenamkhethe. Inqubo efunekayo ivikela amalungelo ayisisekelo angabekwanga ngokuqondile eMthethweni we-Cycrinic, njengalungelo lokufihla imfihlo. [[FLT:]][FLT]]][FLT][FLT]][127]] [773]]), iNkanto ethola ukuthi umthetho wecala uvikela ilungelo lokwethulwa kwezindaba zomuntu siqu ukukhishwa kwesisu. Nakuba izinqumo ezithile zokukhishwa kwezisulwa. [[FLT] Izinqulurn zilokhu kuvikwa ezinziwa kakhulu.[5] Inquluko luthiwe ukuvimbela ekukhipheni ukukhishwa kwesisu. Isimiso sokukhishwa komthetho.

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siyithuluzi eliyinhloko lokusebenzisa iBill of Rights ezifundazweni (ukuhlangana). Ngaphandle kwayo, imibuso ibiyokhululeka ekucindezeleni ukukhuluma, ekumiseni izinkolo, noma ekuphikiseni ukuqulwa kwecala. Ngemfundiso yokukhetha, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yasebenzisa cishe wonke amalungiselelo eSishaya - mthetho Amalungelo abantu nakohulumeni bendawo, iqinisekisa ukuthi akukho silinganiso sikahulumeni esingayinyathela inkululeko eyisisekelo.

Izinselele Zanamuhla Nokuqhubeka Kwesikhathi Esiphansi

Naphezu kwalezi sivikelo eziqinile, izivikelo zoMthetho-sisekelo azizona ezokuzibulala. Zidinga ukuqapha njalo, ukuhlola kokwahlulela okunentshiseko, nokuthembisa umphakathi. Ubuchwepheshe obusha, ubuphekula bembulunga yonke, nokulondeka kwesizwe kuvivinya imingcele yezivikelo zomthetho-sisekelo. Ngokwesibonelo, i-USA PATRIOTT Act (2001) Act ebanzi amandla okuhlola, eholela ekubekeni ukulinganisela phakathi kokulondeka nokwethukela. i-Clapper v. i-UMANDROW International USA[FT:1] (2020). I-Entelligence Surveillance Court yengale izicelo zemvume, kodwa abagxeki baphikisa ukuthi ukuqoqwa kwemininingwane engakhonzi kuphazamisa ukuncitshiswa kwe-Oyesine.

Amandla kaMongameli futhi anwebe kakhulu enkathini yanamuhla. Isifundazwe sokuphatha, nohide lwaso lwezinhlangano, siphakamisa imibuzo mayelana nabameleli begunya lokubeka umthetho − inselele eSiphakamiso Sokunikeza Amandla emithetho eKhongomeni. i-Association’s this project ayizange ikwazi ukuhlukanisa, kodwa izenzakalo zamuva ezifana [[FLT:]Goundsy v. United States (2020) isikisela isithakazelo esisha sokuhlela amanxusa anikeza iziqondiso ukuqonda okukhulu.

Amasiteji ezokuxhumana, nakuba engewona abadlali bakahulumeni, angacindezela inkulumo ngezindlela ezihlanganisa izindinganiso zeSichibiyelo sokuqala. Inkantolo kusamelwe ilungise ngokugcwele ukuhlangana kokulinganisela komphakathi nesenzo sikahulumeni, kodwa amacala anjenge Packingham v. North Carolina[[FL:1] (2017]) iqinisekisa ukuthi i-webhrashi yezokuxhumana iyindawo yomphakathi yanamuhla yokuxoxa.

Ukulwela ukulingana kuyaqhubeka. I-Umeal Protection Claus iye yanxuswa ukuba iphikise imithetho ye-ID, i-gerrymaning, futhi ivume. Shelby County v. Haker[ [20203], iNkantolo iqedise ilungiselelo eliyinhloko le-Voting Rights Act ka-1965, iphikisa ngokuthi indlela yokunquma ukuthi iziphi izigaba ezidinga ukumiswa kwemithetho ye-operacratic yayisiwe. Lesinqumo saholela ekushicishisweni kwemithetho yokuvota emisha ezindaweni eziningana, ukuphakamisa imibuzo emisha ngobandlululo ngobandlululo. Ingqungquthela inegunya lokuthuthukisa inqubo, kodwa i-Grevertive inqabele isenzo.

Ukuqonda izivikelo zoMthetho-sisekelo akuwona nje umsebenzi wemfundo; kungumsebenzi womphakathi. Ukulinganisa ubude bobude bencwadi kusuka ekhonweni layo lokuzivumelanisa nokulungisa nokuchaza kokwahlulela. Umbhalo wokuqala ungase ungaqinisekisi ngokucacile ukulingana kwabesifazane noma izinhlanga ezincane, kodwa izimiso zayo zenkululeko nohulumeni olinganiselwe ziye zanwetshwa ngokulwa nangokuchaza.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola [[FLT: 0] Umbhalo weNational Archives we-Constitution[FLT]], , [[FLT]][FLT]][FLT]][FLT]All Legin Information [[[[FLT]][FLT]][6]][FLT][5]] [[5]] Imicimbi yeNkathi yeNguquko yeNkathi Yezehlo, neslazehlaka enjenge [[FLT] ephakeme].[12][12].FFFFFFFF]] [0] [0]] [iphawu olulinganayomthetho-onke]

Isiphetho

Ukuhlakanipha koMthetho-sisekelo kusekuhlanganisweni kokulinganiselwa kwawo kokwakha namalungelo acacile. Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso nokuhlola nokulinganisela kuvimbela noma iliphi igatsha ekutholeni igunya elinganqandeki. ISigqi Samalungelo sibala inkululeko ethile uhulumeni angeke ayiphule, kuyilapho iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sinweba lezo zivikelo ukuze sikhiphe imingcele futhi sifune ukwelashwa okulinganayo kubo bonke abantu. Kukonke, la malungiselelo akha uhlelo oluqinile oluye lwavikela amaMelika ekubuseni ngonyaneni futhi lwathuthukisa imbangela yokulingana emakhulwini amabili eminyaka.

Kodwa uMthetho-sisekelo awuwona umbhalo ophelele. Ekuqaleni ubugqila babubhekene nobuso obuphelele. Buye bamelana nomthetho ophelele. Buye bamiswa phambili uScott v. Sandford [1857], obenqaba ukuba izakhamuzi zaseAfrika, ku-'eyenziwa i-all'. Hodges[FLT] [[FLT]] [2010] [umshado], uveza ukulingana nomthetho we-atmosfective [i] [i-[FLD] [icell:1] [1857] [iiii] [iiintshiya-3] [i-awunqabela i-asespest], inqaba ukukhula kwesizwe, ukuvikelwa kwenkululeko, ukuvosa, ukuvosa, ukuhlanganisa amalungelo ezomnotho, ukulingana kwenkululeko yenkululeko negunya lombuso.