Iyini Inqubo Efanele?

Inqubo efanelekile yisimiso se-lickrock ye-American jurisprudency, iqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni akanakuncisha noma yimuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwezinqubo ezilungile nemithetho elungile. Akuwona umthetho owodwa kodwa uhlelo oluvumelanayo kodwa isivikelo esivumelana nomongo, ukuqinisekisa ukuthi inqubo engokomthetho ilungile ngokuyisisekelo. Umqondo ufakwe ezinzimeni zesihlanu neziyisine zeSichibiyelo eMthethweni we-U.S. Umthetho-Constitution, owenqabela uhulumeni ukuba angaphiki inqubo efanele. Lemithetho emibili yomthetho ikha ungqimba oluphindiwe ngokuphindwe kabili: iSiphendulo sesihlanu sisebenza kuhulumeni ophethe, kuyilapho iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sinwe se-Geneth Reconstmentation sinwedmentation imfuneko efanayo kuhulumeni nohulumeni bendawo.

Inqubo efanelekile yanamuhla iqondwa ngezigaba ezimbili ezihlukene kodwa ezingenanayo: inqubo edingayo nenqubo efanelekile. Inqubo efanelekile iphathelene ne- indlela yokwenza kukahulumeni] [[FLT]] [izinyathelo, isaziso, ukuzwa, nokunxusa okumelwe kwandule noma yikuphi ukuncishwa kwamalungelo. Inqubo efanele, ngokwehlukile, amakheli ka-inqual [FLT][FLT]] — ukugcwaliswa kwemithetho ngokwayo, ukuvikela amalungelo athile abalulekile ekuphazameni uhulumeni kungakhathaliseki izinqubo ezisetshenziswayo. Zombili amagatsha abalulekile ekulondolozeni umphakathi lapho amandla okulinganisa futhi ekhululekile.

Imisuka Engokomlando Yenqubo Efanele

Isimiso senqubo efanele sinezimpande ezijulile ezingokomlando ezifinyelela emuva emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka ngaphambi kokusungulwa kweMelika. Ukuqala okudumile kakhulu ngu-Magna Carta[FL:0] ka-1215, iSahluko sika-39 simemezela ukuthi akukho muntu okhululekile oboshelwa ejele, odingisiwe, noma osuswe i-̴ ngaphandle kokwahlulela okungokomthetho kontanga yakhe noma umthetho wezwe. ” leyo nkulumo, i-̴ umthetho wezwe, i-̶ kamuva washintshela emqondweni wenqubo efanele. Izazi ezingokomthetho njengeSizwe u-Edward Coke zafaka umqondo emakhulwini eminyaka alandelayo, futhi wafakwa eqenjini yesizwe nakumthetho.

Abakhi baseMelika badweba kakhulu ngalelisiko. UJames Madison, owamisa iSichibiyelo sesihlanu, wahlose ukuba sisebenze njengesivikelo sokuvikela ukucushelwa kwemithetho njengokuphathwa kabi kwezikhulu. Ngemva kweMpi Yombango, i-Reconstructon Congress yanezela iSiphendu se 14neth, yanikeza inqubo efaneleyo kubo bonke abantu abangaphakathi kwegunya likahulumeni futhi yanikeza ithuluzi elinamandla lokuvikela izigqila ezintsha ezisemisweni zikahulumeni wezomthetho wokuziqulo. Izehlakanisweni zeNkanto ephakeme yeNkanto enjengezenzweni ewumbuso iHUrdo v.[FLT][FLT: [FLT] [12.1] [18]] [18] [184] i-FLT] ne-Foctivestingsting ku-Expoidllsting ku-Expossting, iziphakampaphekelele ze-Expo, iziphakame zekhulu lekhulu lekhulu lekhulu leminyaka.

ISichibiyelo Sesihlanu

Ngo-1791, iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sithi: “ akekho umuntu oyobe ewu… uncishwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho. i-̵ lesi sisho sichazwe ukuba kudinge ukuba uhulumeni wezwe unikeze isaziso esiphelele samacala, ithuba lokuzwakala phambi komenzi-sinqumo ongakhethi, nethuba elibalulekile lokunikeza ubufakazi. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, iSichibiyelo sesihlanu saphakamisa futhi indikimba ecebile yomthetho ngokuphathelene nokuzibeka ngokuphindiwe, izingozi eziphindwe kabili, nezindawo eziphakeme ezihloselwe ukuqinisa umgomo wokuvikela abantu ngokwesinyathelo esiwumthetho. ISikhulu iNkakhulu i&817; isinqumo [FL:M] futhi [irGenetic Acrone] [126], ukukhomba amaphulo, ukukhothoba, ukukhomba amalungiselelo adinga ngokuqondile, futhi amaphoyisa, futhi ancikelwe kanye nesimiso sokuvikela, i-Nqumo.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Ngo-1868; iSiqeshana 1 seSichibiyelo seshumi nane sinikeza ukuthi akukho simo i-̴ sikhululela noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho. i-̵ lenguquko ebekwe i-gationalism yaseMelika ngokwenza ohulumeni bahlulele isilinganiso sombuso sokulunga. Izincazelo zakuqala zazinciphileka, kodwa ngekhulu lama-20 iNkantolo yayisebenzisa iSiphetho se 145 ̱ i-Clausle i-Ective Procemental projectssss ([12]) cishe yonke iMicimbiso emelene nezikhundla, kuhlanganise nenkululeko yokukhuluma, ukunyathelisa, ukuhlangana kwenkolo, ukuhlangana, nokulunga. Icala [FF][3][3][3]

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanelekile igxila ekuqondeni okulungile kwe isetshenziswa lapho uhulumeni efuna ukuncisha othile ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Ayinqabeli uhulumeni ukuba athathe isinyathelo; kunalokho, ifuna ukuba uhulumeni alandele izinqubo ezithile ngaphambi kokuba enze kanjalo. INkantolo Ephakeme yamisa uvivinyo oluvumelanayo Amamas v. Elditridge [7] [6] ukunquma ukuthi inqubo ifaneleka esimweni esithile. [FLT]] [fLT] [f:], izinkantolo zilinganisa izici ezintathu: isithakazelo esingaqondile, izingozi zezimiso ezikhona, nenzalo zohulumeni ezikhona, nenani eliphakathi kwezindawo ezikhona.[#17]

Izakhi zomnyombo wenqubo yokuhlelwa kweprocedro zihlanganisa:

  • Notice. Abantu ngabanye kumelwe bathole isaziso esifike ngesikhathi nesanele sanoma yisiphi isenzo sikahulumeni esingase sithinte amalungelo abo. Lokhu kusho ukwaziwa ngamacala, ubufakazi, nemiphumela engenzeka.
  • [ I-Opportunit to Oniw. Abantu abathintekile kumelwe babe nethuba elibalulekile lokuveza uhlangothi lwabo lwendaba] noma nini ngokuzwa, ngokulalela okubhaliwe, noma ngempikiswano yomlomo, "phambi komenzi wesinqumo ongakhethi."
  • I-Tribunal engakhethi. Umenzi wesinqumo kumele angathathi hlangothi, kungekho kusongela komuntu siqu noma okungokwezimali emphumeleni. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi inqubo efanele ayiyona nje inqubo yesivumelwano kodwa isivikelo sangempela.
  • [[NTL:0] Ifanele Iseluleko nobufakazi. Ezimweni eziningi, ikakhulukazi emacaleni obugebengu, inqubo efanele idinga ukufinyelela ukumelelwa okungokomthetho nekhono lokubhekana nofakazi abamelene ne-examine.
  • [[UMTL:0] Isinqumo esiqinisekisiwe. Incazelo ebhaliwe noma eshiwo ngomlomo yesinqumo isiza ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi umenzi wesinqumo ucabangele ubufakazi futhi alandele umthetho.

Inqubo efanelekile engokwenqubo efanelekile isebenza ezindaweni eziningi ngalé kokuqulwa kobugebengu: ukukhishwa kwezenhlalakahle, ukuqondiswa kwabafundi, ukukhishwa kwezenhlalakahle, ukukhishwa kwezincwadi kobuchwepheshe, ukukhishwa kwezindlebe, nokukhishwa kwesigwebo okuvamile konke kudinga izinqubo ezilungile. Izinqubo eziqondile zingase zihlukane, kodwa isibopho esiyisisekelo sokulunga sihlala singapheli.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Inqubo efanelekile eyisisekelo ivikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekungeneleni kukahulumeni, ngisho noma uhulumeni elandela izinqubo eziphelele. Leligatsha lenqubo efanelekile liyimpikiswano kakhulu ngoba limema izinkantolo ukuba zihlole okuqukethwe futhi zifune injongo yemithetho, hhayi nje izindlela ezisetshenziswayo ukuyenza iphoqelele. Imfundiso yavela ngasekupheleni kwekhulu le-19 leminyaka enjenga Allgeyr v. Louisiana [1897] [187] [[FLT]]] kanye ] no-Lachner v.[ inqubo emisiwe] i-New York [ [1] [1] [1] [0], lapho ihla iziqondiso zezomnotho ezilinganiswe ngokungenangqondo nemvume yesivumelwano.[FLT] [FT] [5] [5]

Inqubo efanelekile yanamuhla encikelwe inqubo eyisisekelo ivikela amalungelo ayi- “ asekelwe ngokujulile kule Nhlangano yesizwe i’ umlando nesiko i-” futhi abalulekile ukuze kunikezwe inkululeko. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela amalungelo amaningana ayisisekelo ngaphansi kwale mfundiso, kuhlanganise:

  • Ilungelo lokushada (isib., Lovang v. Virginia, 1967; Obergefell v. Hodges, 2015])
  • Ilungelo lokuveza (Skur v.Oklahoma, 1942])
  • Ilungelo lokuvimbela inzalo (Griswold v.Connecticut[[FL:1], 1965])
  • Ilungelo lokukhipha isisu ( Roe v. , 1973, kanye [[FLT]]] i-Casey, 1992, nakuba [[FLT]] [[FLT]]ROE yabusa ] Dobs v.Womens[FLT:%217]; Organization yezempilo [[FLT:]], 2022]
  • Ilungelo lokuqondisa ukukhuliswa kwe-’s ([ Pierce v. Society of Odade , 1925])
  • Ilungelo lokuhamba ([[QUL:0]Saenz v. Roe, 1999)

Uma umthetho uphula inqubo eyisisekelo eyisisekelo elungile, izinkantolo zisebenzisa ukuhlolwa kwemibandela, zifuna uhulumeni ukuba abonise ukuthi umthetho ufeza isithakazelo esishukumisayo sikahulumeni futhi uhlotshaniswa ngokulinganiselwe ukuze ufinyelele lesosithakazelo. Le bha yomthetho ophezulu iqinisekisa ukuthi inkululeko yomuntu siqu ethandeka kakhulu ayincitshiswanga kalula yimithetho emikhulu.

Ukubaluleka Kwenqubo Efaneleyo Emphakathini Okhululekile

Inqubo elindelekile ayiyona nje imfundiso engokomthetho engokobuchwepheshe; iyisibopho sokuziphatha nesokwakha sokubusa komthetho. Ngaphandle kwezindlela eziqinile zokuvikela ezifanele, abantu basengozini yokuboshwa ngokungeyomfuneko, ukujeziswa ngokufushanisa, nokuphambana kukahulumeni. Lomqondo ufeza imisebenzi enzima eminingana:

  • Secte on Arbitrory Power. Ngokufuna uhulumeni athethelele izenzo zakhe ngezinqubo ezimisiwe nangemingcele emisiwe, inqubo efanele ivimbela ukugxiliswa kwegunya elingalawulwa.
  • Icala nokuthemba. Izenzakalo ezilungile zikhulisa ukwethembela komphakathi esimisweni somthetho. Uma abantu bazi ukuthi zizakuzwiwa futhi zahlulelwe ngokungakhethi, basengozini kakhulu ukwamukela imiphumela, ngisho nenobuhlungu.
  • [ Isivikelo samancinci. Inqubo efanele ivikela abantu abasengozini namaqembu kumbuso ocindezelayo. Iqinisekisa ukuthi ngisho nabantu abangathandwayo bathola amalungelo afanayo okuthola amalungelo okuzikhethela njengabo bonke abanye.
  • Ukweqa nokungalungi. Izivikelo zesayensi njengelungelo lokululeka, lokuthola, nokuhlola kunciphisa ingozi yokukholelwa okungalungile, ukuphika okungalungile, nokuncishwa okungalungile.
  • Ukuhlonipha isithunzi somuntu ngamunye. Maphakathi, inqubo efanele iqaphela ukuthi wonke umuntu unelungelo lokuphathwa ngesithunzi nangenhlonipho ngumbuso. Lokho kuqaphela kubalulekile emphakathini wentando yeningi.

Inqubo Edingekile

Isimiso Sokwahlulela Ngezigebengu

Emicimbini yobugebengu, inqubo efanelekile ibeka izimfuneko ezinkulu ekwabeqeshini komthetho nasemankantolo. Ilungelo eliyinhloko lokunikeza izinkantolo. Iseluleko, esimiswe Gedeon v. Wainfr [1963], lingenye yezinqobi ezidume kakhulu zokuphumelela kweze-procedational. Okunye ukuvikela okuyinhloko kuhlanganisa ilungelo lokuqungabaza nokuqulwa kwecala lomphakathi, ilungelo lokubhekana nofakazi, isivikelo sokuzicindezela ngokucindezelwa [kuhamba komthetho] [[FLT.2]] ] [irra], nemfuneko yokuba icala libonakale lingenangatshazwakali ekungabazeni. Lemithetho iklanyelwe ukuvimbela izinkolelo ezingalungile nokugcina icala. Isinqumo esikhulu, okumelwe sifake inqubo yobugebengu, futhi kumelwe sihlangane nemiphumela yolwazi oluyiyo.

Intuthuko Yezakhamuzi Neyabaphathi

Inqubo elindelekile idlulela ngalé kwezinkantolo zobugebengu. Emacaleni omphakathi, izigigaba zinelungelo lokuqaphela ukumangalelwa, ithuba lokuveza ubufakazi, nelungelo lokudlulisa. Amanxusa aphethe (njenge-Social Security Administration, i-Nvironmental Protection Agency, ne-aintunterning plaguard) yezwe (izindawo zokuvala izindlebe ezifanele ngaphambi kokuncisha abantu izinzuzo, amalayisensi, noma ezinye izithakazelo zempahla. Isibonelo, [[FL: 0] Goldberg v. Kelly[FLT:] [1970]), iNkanto ephakeme yeNkanto efuna ukuba abamukela inhlalakahle bakhululwelezeli phambi kokuba bazwe ngaphambi kokuba bakhululwe. Ngokufanayo, abafundi ababhekene nethuba lokukhishwa kwesokudla nokuzwa ngaphansi kwezelelwa [FLT:]

Ukuqhubeka Kohambo Lokufuduka

Umthetho wokuhlanganisa imingcele unikeza inqubo eyinkimbinkimbi edinga inqubo yendawo. Abantu ababoshwe ngokomzimba abakhona e-United States ngokuvamile banelungelo leSichibiyelo seSiphendu sesihlanu ’ izivikelo, okusho ukuthi kumelwe bathole isaziso nokuzwa kahle ngaphambi kokudingiswa. Nokho, izinga lalezi zivikelo lingahluka, ikakhulukazi kubantu abavalelwe emngceleni noma abangase bakhululwe ngokususwa ngokomzimba. Icala lamuva leNkanto ePhakeme njenge- Jennings v. Rodriguez[FLT:] (20:8) liye laphikisana nokuthi ijele elingapheli ngaphandle kwesibopho sokuzwa liphula inqubo edinga ukulondeka kwesizwe, kuveza ukushukuma okuqhubekayo phakathi kokuphepha nelungelo lomphakathi.

Izinselele Zesikhathi Esizayo

Naphezu kwendima yayo eyisisekelo, inqubo efanele ibhekene nosongo olukhulu ekhulwini lama - 21.

Ukungalingani Kwezimiso Nokufinyelela Ubulungisa

Isithembiso senqubo efanele sisala singenanjongo kwabaningi abangakwazi ukukhokha iziqondiso ezingokomthetho. − ikakhulukazi lezo ezihilela ukuxoshwa kwecala, ukuqoqwa kwezikweletu, ukuwinwa kwabantwana, nokufuduka (i-individials (i-]] ivela njalo [] ipro[[akanye ummeli]]) (ngenxa yokuthi abanayo izimali zokuqasha iziqondiso. INkanto ephakeme [FLT]]] iLassiter v. Umnyango Wezenkonzo Yezenhlalakahle yezenhlalo [19981] wakholelwa ukuthi akukho lungelo elizenzekelayo lokululeka ezicini ezimweni zomphakathi, ushiya izigidi zingena eziminyangweni eziyinkimbinkimbi. Izentengo eqhubekayo yalenza le nkinga. Izifundo zibonisa ukuthi amaBlabhuleki nama-Spistphicsciusch zivame ukugcinwa futhi zamukele inqubo engathikele, futhi zifanele inqubo engcono.

Ubuchwepheshe Nezindaba Zomuntu Siqu

Intuthuko kwezobuchwepheshe ibekela izinselele zenqubo ezingokwesiko. Ukuhlola kohulumeni, ukuqapha i-software, ukuqapha i-athom yamaphoyisa, kanye nezimiso ezisebenza ngemishini yokwenza izinqumo kungancisha abantu inkululeko noma impahla ngaphandle kokubona noma ukubukeza okunenjongo. Ngokwesibonelo, ukusetshenziswa kwemiyalo yezingozi ekugwebeni nasemagunyeni e-paryryk izinqumo kungase kubangele ukucwaswa kwezinhlanga futhi kuphike ithuba lokubekela inselele i-data engaphansi. Ngokufanayo, ukuqoqwa kobufakazi bezibalo obuvela kuma-computersm, i-computer, i-cuty, ne-GPS kuphakamisa imibuzo ngesaziso, imvume, ne-Drefectivementation ̱ ukuphambukanisa ngenqubo efanele. Inkantolo ephakeme i-̱ isinqumo esise-[FLD:0] ngokufana ne-RY. v.[FFLP] [F1] [F1], kudinga ukuva inqubo yocingo yocingo, i-mand projective, inqubo efuna ukusetshenziswa kwezekelelwa

Ukulondeka Kwesizwe Namandla Aphuthumayo

Ngenxa yokulondeka kwesizwe, ngezinye izikhathi ohulumeni baye bayigwema inqubo efanelekile. Ngemva kokuhlasela ngoSeptemba 11 i-Rou.S. i-Rumsfeld [2004] [i- iphikisa ukuthi ingaphansi kwezinkantolo zempi kunokuba ibe izinkantolo zesizwe. INkantolo Ephakeme yaphindisela emacaleni anjenge [[FLT:]] [200] [i-Ramdiv] v. I-Rumsfeld [2004] [2004])] [ne-Boumediene v.[FLT] Bhish[2003] [i] [indlela ephakathi kwenqubo yomphakathi], igcizelela ukuthi ngisho nesitha sine nqubo efanelekile yokubekela inselele isigwebo sabo sokungamenzi yomthetho. Kodwa izingxabano ziyaqhubeka ikakhulukazi njengoba kuveza izinhlekelele ezingokwesimo esiphuthumayo phakathi kwezempilo, ukunte yomphakathi, ukuntethelela imvume yomphakathi.

Isiphetho

Inqubo efanelekile ingaphezu nje kokuthatheka okungokomthetho; isibopho esiphilayo sokulunga esisekela ukubusa ngentando yeningi kwaseMelika. Kusukela kwiMagna Carta kuya kwiSichibiyelo sesihlanu neseshumi nane leMinyaka ka-14, kusukela ku- uMathews v. I-Elditridge[[ ku- [u-OGene]] wawa v. i-hodges[[[FLT] [indlela], lesi simiso siye saqala ukuhlangabezana nezinselele ezintsha kuyilapho kunezinjongo zaso: ukuqinisekisa ukuthi wonke umuntu uhulumeni uthola ithuba elinengqondo lokuzwakalayo nokuthi usebenzise amandla awo phakathi kwemingcele engcono. Njengoba izikhulumiyawo, abafundi, abafundi, izakhamuzi, ukuqonda nezakhamuzi, inqubo efanelekile ekulondolozeni amalungelo nenkululeko esizwe. Isizukulwane akumelwe nakugqiswe ukugadiswa ukusongela ukusongela komthetho wonke omphakathi. Kodwa ukukhonyuselwa inqubo yomthetho.

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, hlola [[[FLT: 1] I-Cornell Information Institute ̱]; ukucaciswa kwenqubo efanele, [ iproject yokwakha kuGideyoni v. Ukukhankasela [[FLT:] [[FLT:]], kanye [[FLT]]] ACLU& #817; ukuhlaziywa kohlanga esimisweni sobulungisa[FLT].[FLT:]