Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nane: Isisekelo SoMthetho Nobulungisa BaseMelika

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siyisisekelo soMthetho - sisekelo weUnited States, ngokuyisisekelo esilawula indlela eyakhiwe ngayo imithetho, ihunyushwe futhi iphoqelelwe ngayo kuzo zonke izakhamuzi. Yaqiniswa ngemva kweMpi Yombango, yamisa izivikelo ezibucayi eziqinisekisa ukwelashwa okulinganayo nenqubo efanele ngaphansi komthetho. Ukuqonda izisekelo zalokhu kudingekile ekuqondeni isimiso somthetho esivikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye, imingcele kahulumeni, futhi ithuthukisa ngokulunga kuzo zonke izigaba zikahulumeni.

Umlando Ogciniwe: Ukuzalwa KweSichibiyelo Se - 14

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo sathathwa ngoJuly 9, 1868, njengesinye seziHlaziyo zokwakha kabusha ngemva kweMpi Yombango. Injongo yaso eyinhloko kwakuwukusingatha isikhundla esingokomthetho saseMelika esanda kukhululwa namazwe aseNingizimu agunyaziwe, aziwa ngokuthi amaBlack Code. Lemithetho yafuna ukuvimbela amalungelo ezigqila ezikhululiwe, futhi ukubuyiselwa kwaklanyelwa ukuwaqeda nokumisa incazelo ecacile yezakhamuzi.

Ukulungisa kwakuyimpendulo eqondile esinqumweni seNkantolo Ephakeme ngo 1857 kuDred Scott v. Sandford, eyayikholelwa ukuthi ama-Afrika angeke abe yizakhamuzi zase-U.S. ngokugumbuqela leso sinqumo, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane samisa indinganiso entsha yomthetho-mthethweni yokulingana namalungelo omphakathi. Abahosho baso, kuhlanganise namanani anethonya njengoMmeli uJohn Bingham waseOhio, ehloselwe ukwakha izakhamuzi zesizwe ezihlangene ezazingenakuphikwa na - zwe.

Ukulungiswa kunezingxenye ezinhlanu, kodwa ezinamandla kakhulu yizintathu zokuqala: iSikhundla sikaClaus, i-Active Procesme, ne-Exctal Protection Clausle. La malungiselelo aye aba isisekelo sezinselele eziningi ezingokomthetho futhi aye andisa izinga lamalungelo omuntu ngamunye ngaphezu kwalokho okwakucatshangwa ekuqaleni.

Isihluthulelo Sika - Claus Wesichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Ukuba Izakhamuzi

I-sazecritity Claus, etholakala emshweni wokuqala we-Calture 1, ithi: "Bonke abantu abazalwa noma abadalwe e-United States, futhi abangaphansi kwemingcele yayo, bayizakhamuzi zase-United States naseZweni lapho behlala khona." Lesi sigqebhezana samisa ubuzibulo, okusho ukuthi noma ubani ozalwe e-U.S. usuke enziwa isakhamuzi, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi abazali bakhe bahlala e-United Court in [[FL:0] United States v. Wong Kim Ark[[FLT:] [1898], eyayithiwawukuba umfokobani ozalelwe e-U.S. kubazali bamaShayina babeyisakhasi.

Ukuba isakhamuzi esiqondile sokuzalwa kuseyisici esivelele somthetho waseMelika, nakuba kuye kwaba yimpikiswano yezombangazwe.

Inqubo KaClaus Elindelekile

I-Gast Process Claus ifundeka kanje: "Nanoma yimuphi uMbuso ngeke unciphe noma ubani ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho." Leli lungiselelo linezincazelo ezimbili ezihlukile: inqubo efanelekile nenqubo elindelekile. Inqubo efanelekile idinga ukuba uhulumeni alandele izinqubo ezilungile ngaphambi kokuba asuse ukuphila komuntu, inkululeko, noma impahla. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ilungelo lokuqaphela, ukuzwa, nethuba lokuzivikela enkantolo. Ngokwesibonelo, ezicabeni zobugebengu, inqubo efanele iqinisekisa ilungelo lokuqulwa komthetho, ukumelelwa, ukuvikelwa ngokusemthethweni, nokuvikeleka umuntu ngokwakhe.

Ngakolunye uhlangothi, inqubo edingayo eyisisekelo, ivikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekuphazanyisweni nguhulumeni, ngisho noma kunezikhungo ezingokwendawo zikhona. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasebenzisa lomqondo ukuze ivikele amalungelo anjengomshado, ubudlelwane bomkhaya, kanye nokuzimela ngokwayo. Amacala okungalawuleki anjengo Roe v. Wade [7777]] kanye no-Hodgefell v. Hoctges[FLD:3] (20) ancike enqubweni enqubweni efanele yokuqaphela amalungelo okukhishwa kwesisu kanye nomshado oweze-ex, ngokulandelana.

Isivikelo SikaClaus Esilinganayo

I-Umeal Protection Claus ithi: "Akunakuphi ukugomela okulinganayo kwemithetho ekhona." Le nkulumo ifuna ukuba kuthathwe izimo zokuphatha bonke abantu ezimweni ezifanayo. Liyithuluzi elinamandla elimelene nobandlululo, kungaba ngokwezinhlanga, ubulili, inkolo, noma ezinye izigaba. INkantolo Ephakeme isebenzisa amazinga ahlukene okuhlola kuye ngohlelo: ukucubungula ngokuqinile ngokohlanga, ukuhlola ubulili, nokubukeza isisekelo sezinye izigaba eziningi.

Mhlawumbe ukusebenza okudume kakhulu kwe-Unicial Protection Clause Brown v. Board of Education [1954], eyaqeda ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi. Umsuka futhi uye waba yinhloko ezimweni ezihilela ukuvuma isenzo, amalungelo okuvota, kanye nokucwaswa ngokobulili, njengokuthi Reed [197], okuyenqabela ukuhlukanisa kwabesifazane ngokwezeluleko lobulili.

Inqubo Yomthetho: Indlela Imithetho Eyenziwa Ngayo

Ukwenza Imithetho Kazwelonke

Inqubo yokwenza imithetho kahulumeni ihlelwe eSiphakamisweni I soMthetho-sisekelo, kodwa isiHlanzi seSichibiyelo seshumi nane siye sayithonya kakhulu indlela iziKhomishane ezisebenzisa ngayo amandla omthetho nemibuso elawulayo. Uhambo lwesivumelwano luqala ngomqondo, ngokuvamile lusuka kwilungu leKhongolo, uMongameli, noma amaqembu abaphathi. Umthetho usungulwa eNdry of Adventies noma iSigele futhi wabelwe ikomiti ukuze ibukeze. AmaKomiti abambe ukuzwa, aphikisa lomthetho, futhi angawuqeda ngaphambi kokuvota ukuze awuthumele egumbini eligcwele.

Ngemva kokudlula elinye igumbi, ibhayisekile idlulela kwelinye, lapho kwenzeka khona inqubo efanayo. Uma amagumbi omabili evumela izinguqulo ezihlukene, ikomiti yengqungquthela ivumelanisa ukungafani. Inguqulo yokugcina kumelwe ivunyelwe yiyo kokubili iNdlu neSishaya-Mnyango ngaphambi kokuba ithunyelwe kuMongameli. UMongameli angasayina incwadi emthethweni, i-veto, noma ayivumele ukuba ibe umthetho ngaphandle kosayinwe. I-veto inganganganwa yiziningi eliyi-3 2 emakamelweni womabili.

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane simisa imingcele kulenqubo. Ngokwesibonelo, ngaphansi kwe-Uncimel Protection Clause, i-Congress ayinakumisa imithetho ehlukanisa amaqembu athile ngaphandle kwesithakazelo sikahulumeni esigunyazayo. Ngokufanayo, i-Gast Procession Claus ifuna ukuba imithetho ibhalwe ngokucacile ngokwaneleyo ukuze yazise izakhamuzi ngalokho okunqatshelwe, ivimbele ukugcinwa okungacacile noma okungaqondakali.

Ukwenza Umthetho KaHulumeni NeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Amazwe futhi anezinqubo zawo siqu zomthetho, kodwa kumelwe avumelane neSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Lokhu kusho ukuthi imithetho kahulumeni ayinakwephula amalungelo avikelwe ngaphansi kwe-Curtive Programme and Aclimate Protection Clauss. Ngokwesibonelo, uhulumeni awunakumisa umthetho olahla amalungelo okuvota asekelwe ohlalweni lohlanga, njengoba lokhu kungaphula isivikelo esilinganayo. Ukunqandwa kudinga futhi ukuba kunikezwe inqubo efanele ekulawuleni nasekwahluleleni.

Imfundiso ehlanganisayo, ethathwe kuyi-The Inquerction Claus, iye yasebenzisa iningi leSiphakamiso samalungelo ezwe. Ngochungechunge lwamacala eNkantolo Ephakeme kusukela ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20, inkululeko enjengenkululeko yokukhuluma, inkolo, nelungelo lokuphatha izikhali zenziwa zabopha ohulumeni bezwe. Lokhu kuye kwawahlanganisa amalungelo ayisisekelo ezweni lonke kuyilapho kusavumela amazwe ukuba adlulisele imithetho yawo siqu emikhawulweni engokomthetho.

Ukushaya Indiva Imithetho Nokuvikela Amalungelo Ezakhamuzi

Ukuphoqelelwa Nokusetshenziswa Kwesimiso Sokuqondisa

Lapho umthetho usumisiwe, kuphoqelelwa igatsha eliphethe kokubili emazingeni kahulumeni nakahulumeni. Amanxusa e-Federal anjengoMnyango Wezobulungisa, i-Evironmental Protection Agency, ne-Unime Accomplication Commission iqashelwa ukuba isebenzise imithetho futhi ibeke imithetho. ISichibiyelo se 145th sifuna ukuba lezi zinkampani zisebenzise imithetho ngendlela engakhethi. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Ecult Protection Clauslee ivimbela ukugcinwa komthetho kubantu abasekelwe ezinhlangani noma ezinhlanga.

Izenzo zokuqondisa, njengeziqondiso zezikhulu, kumelwe zivumelane neSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Uma umyalo wesikhulu uphula inqubo efanele noma isivikelo esifanayo, izinkantolo zingasishaya phansi.

Ukubukezwa Kokwahlulela Nezinselele Zenkantolo

Isimiso sokwahlulela siyindawo eyinhloko yemithetho ephikisayo noma izenzo zikahulumeni eziphula iSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Abantu bangafaka icala enkantolo kahulumeni noma enkantolo kahulumeni bethi umthetho uphula amalungelo abo. Izinkantolo zihlola ukufaneleka komthetho ngokusebenzisa indinganiso esebenzayo yokubukeza. Uma umthetho utholakala ukuthi uphula indiva, abahluleli bangakhipha imiyalo yokunqanda ukugcinwa kwawo noma bathi awusebenzi.

INkantolo Ephakeme inendima ebalulekile ekuchazeni iSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Izinqumo zayo zibeka iziqondiso ezibophayo eziqondisa izinkantolo eziphansi futhi zilolonge inkambiso yomphakathi. Ngokwesibonelo, Gideon v. Wainwright[ (1963), iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi i-Sect Proced Claus idinga ukuba kunikezwe abamangalelwa abangemthetho abangakwazi ukuthenga. Living v. [1967]], i-Act Classible Protection Claus yasetshenziswa ekuviceni imithetho evimbela umshado ohlukene.

Indima Yezimo Zikahulumeni Ekuvikeleni Amalungelo

Izinhlangano zikahulumeni futhi zinesibopho sokuvikela amalungelo ezakhamuzi ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Ngokwesibonelo, uMnyango Wezobulungisa ungahlola futhi udlulise amashende emibuso noma ohulumeni bendawo ngenxa yokwephula amalungelo omphakathi, njengangezenzo zokungalungi kwamaphoyisa noma zobandlululo. IKhomishane yezemfundo yamaLungelo e-Civil Common Commission futhi itusa i-Congress kanye noMongameli ukuze iqinise isivikelo.

Lezi zimiso zokuqinisekisa ukuthi iSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane asisona nje ipheshana kodwa siyisiqinisekiso esiphilayo sobulungisa.

Ukusetshenziswa Okuwusizo KweSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Amacala Aphakeme Enkantolo

  • [FLT][FOLT]n v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954): yajika imfundiso "yohlukene kodwa elinganayo", ibusa ukuthi ukuhlukanisa ngokohlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kuphazamisa isivikelo esilinganayo sika Claus.
  • Miranda v.Arizona (1966): yamiswa ukuthi amaphoyisa kumelwe azise ukuthi anelungelo lawo lokuthula futhi abe nommeli, ngaphansi kweNkathi Elindelekile ka Claus.
  • obergefell v. Hodges (2015): umshado osemthethweni owenziwe ngokomthetho owe-expression ezweni lonke, ukucaphuna kokubili i-Seed Program ne-Fom Program ne-Claus yesivikelo esilinganayo.
  • [FLT]McDonald v. Chicago [2010] : Isinqumo sesibili sahlanganisa ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izikhali ezizweni ngeNkathi ka Claus.

Impikiswano Nezindaba Zanamuhla

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane sisalokhu sisenkabeni yezimpikiswano ezingokomthetho zamanje. Impikiswano enjengokuvuma isenzo ekungeneleni emakolishi, imingcele yamalungelo okuvota, namalungelo okuzala ivame ukubekwa ngaphansi kohlelo lwaso. Ngokwesibonelo, iziqu ze-Fair Adgigistrations v. Harvard [2023], iNkantolo Ephakeme yalinganisela ukusetshenziswa kohlanga emakholijini, icaphuna i-Sucle Protection Claus. Ngokufanayo, izimpikiswano ngokukhishwa kwezisumo zegazi ezithiwe zingase ziphinde zimelane inqubo yokuvikela efanelekile.

Enye impikiswano yobuzibulo obuyindawo. Abanye abantu bezombangazwe baye bafuna ukuba kuqedwe ubuzibulo bezingane ezingabhaliwe, bephikisa ngokuthi inkulumo ethi "ngaphansi kwegunya lazo" ivumela ngaphandle. Nokho, izazi eziningi zomthetho no-Wong Kim Ark basekela imvume yobuzibulo, okwenza noma iluphi ushintsho lube nzima ngaphandle kokulungisa umthetho.

Imibono Evamile Enganembile NgeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

  • Ukuguqula: Ukulungiswa kusebenza kuphela ezakhamuzini. Eqinisweni, iNkathi Efanele noMvikelo olinganayo u-Claus isebenza ku "noma imuphi" umuntu phakathi kwe-U.S., kuhlanganise nezingangeni-zimboni. Ngokwesibonelo, abafuduki abangabhaliwe banelungelo lenqubo efanele yokudingiswa kwemicimbi.
  • Ukuvikelwa kwe-Misc: Isivikelo esilinganayo sisho ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo. ['isigqebhezana sidinga "isivikelo esilinganayo," kodwa uhulumeni angaphatha amaqembu ngokwehlukile uma enesizathu esifanelekile. Ngokwesibonelo, imithetho esekelwe ekushayeleni imingcele yobudala ivunyelwe ngoba ifeza injongo enengqondo.
  • Ukuguqula: Ukulungiswa kwakuhunyushwa kabanzi njalo. Amashumi eminyaka ngemva kokuhlanzwa, iNkantolo Ephakeme yanikeza iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo ilula ukufunda. Akuqalwanga kwaze kwaba ngekhulu lama-20 lapho iNkantolo iqala khona ukusebenzisa isivikelo sayo kakhulu, ikakhulukazi ngemfundiso ehlanganisayo.
  • Ukufakwa kwe-Misc: Amabhizinisi azimele kumelwe alandele ukulungisa. Isichibiyeli seshumi nane sivame ukuvimbela isenzo sikahulumeni, hhayi ukuziphatha kwangasese. Nokho, uMkhandlu ungamisa imithetho ngaphansi kwamandla awo okuqinisekisa (Inguquko yesihlanu yenguquko) ukuze ulawule ukuziphatha kwangasese, njengoba kuboniswa kumthetho we-Civil Rights Act ka-646.

Umphumela Ohlala Njalo WeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siye salolonga umthetho nenhlangano yaseMelika iminyaka engaphezu kwengu-150. Siye sasetshenziswa kakhulu ekususeni ubandlululo, amalungelo okuvota alondekile, nokwandisa inkululeko yomuntu siqu. Ithonya laso lidlulela cishe kuzo zonke izingxenye zomthetho, kusukela kubulungisa bobugebengu kuya kumthetho womkhaya kuya kumthetho wezezomnotho. Njengoba izinselele ezintsha zivela − njengemfihlo yezemishini, ukuhlakanipha kokwenziwa, nokuguqulwa kokufuduka kwezentengiselwa kwamanye amazwe .) Ngokungathandabuzeki ukuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi nane senkululeko yombuso siyaqhubeka sisebenza njengesisekelo sokulinganisela amalungelo ohulumeni ngamalungelo abantu ngabanye.

Kulabo abafuna ukuqonda indlela imithetho enziwa futhi ephoqelelwa ngayo, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sinikeza imephu yomgwaqo. Sifuna ukuba umthetho ube nobulungisa, ukuba ukuphoqelelwa kwamandla okungacaci, nokuthi izakhamuzi zithole usizo lapho amalungelo azo ephulwa. Ngokufunda izimiso zawo, izakhamuzi zingaba abahlanganyeli abanolwazi ngokwengeziwe enqubweni yentando yeningi futhi zisekele ubulungisa ngaphansi komthetho.