Table of Contents
INkantolo Ephakeme yaseUnited States imi njengenye yezindikimba zokwahlulela ezinamandla kakhulu emhlabeni, isebenzisa igunya lokuchaza uMthetho-sisekelo futhi ilolonge amalungelo ayisisekelo ezakhamuzi zaseMelika. Ngezinqumo zengqopha - mlando ezithatha amakhulu amabili eminyaka, iNkantolo iye yaxoxa ngemibuzo ebucayi ngokulingana, inkululeko, amandla kahulumeni, namalungelo omuntu ngamunye. Lamacala awazange axazulule izimpikiswano ezikhethekile ezingokomthetho kuphela kodwa futhi aye aguqula nomphakathi waseMelika, ethonya yonke into kusukela emfundweni nasebulungiseni bobugebengu ukuba ivote amalungelo nenkululeko yomuntu siqu.
Ukuqonda lamacala ayinhloko eNkantolo Ephakeme kunikeza ukuqonda okubalulekile ngendlela isimiso sobulungisa saseMelika esisebenza ngayo, indlela izimiso zomthetho ngokomthetho ezisetshenziswa ngayo ezimweni zezwe langempela, nendlela ukulinganisela kwamandla phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu kahulumeni okugcinwa ngayo. Lesiqondiso esibanzi sihlola izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme kakhulu eziye zachaza umthetho waseMelika futhi ziyaqhubeka zithinta ukuphila kwethu namuhla.
I-Foundation of Judicial Review: Marbury v. Madison (103)
NgoFebruary 24, 1803, iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. yaqala ukumemezela isenzo soMkhandlu ongavumelani nemithetho, kanjalo yamisa imfundiso yokubukezwa kokwahlulela ecaleni eliyingqophamlando leMarbury v. Madison. Lesi sinqumo ngokuyisisekelo saguqula isimiso somthetho saseMelika futhi samisa ijaji njengegatsha likahulumeni elilinganayo eduze kwamagatsha emithetho nezikhulu.
Isimo Sezombangazwe Nesizinda
Icala lavela esimweni esimangalelwe ngokwezombangazwe phakathi nokushintshwa kwegunya lobumongameli. UMongameli uJohn Adams wabizwa ngokuthi uWilliam Marbury njengomunye wabahluleli abangamashumi amane nambili bokuthula ngoMashi 2, 1801, futhi iSigele saqinisekisa ukumiswa kwamacala ngosuku olulandelayo, March 3, okwakuwusuku lokugcina luka-Adams esesikhundleni. Nokho, ukusebenza kukaNobhala weSizwe uJohn Marshall wehluleka ukukhipha ezine zalezo zimemezelo, kuhlanganise nesithi Marbury's, futhi lapho uThomas Jefferson ethatha isikhundla ngoMarch 4, wayala ukuba iziphathi ezisele ezine zincishwe.
UMarbury wamangalela unobhala omusha wezwe, uJames Madison, ukuze athole ukuthunywa kwakhe.
Iqhinga leBrilliant likaMahluleli omkhulu uMarshall
Umbono wenkantolo wabhalwa nguMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall, owahlela umbono wenkantolo ngochungechunge lwemibuzo emithathu eyayiyiphendula. Indlela kaMarshall yayihlakaniphile ngokwezimiso, ekhuluma ukuthi uMarbury wayenelungelo yini ekuyani kwakhe, ukuthi umthetho wawunikeza ikhambi, nokuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme yayinegunya lokukhipha lelokhambi.
Inkantolo yabulala ingxenye engu - 13 yeMithetho kaJudicia ka - 1789, imemezela ukuthi izinkantolo zaseMelika zinamandla okuqeda imithetho eziyitholayo ukuba iphule umthetho-sisekelo (igunya) manje elaziwa ngokuthi ukubukezwa kokwahlulela. Lesisimiso saba isisekelo somthetho - sisekelo waseMelika.
Umphumela Ohlala Njalo Wokubukeza Kokwahlulela
Isinqumo kuleNkantolo Ephakeme samisa ilungelo lezinkantolo lokunquma ukuthi izenzo zomthetho ngokomthetho zamanye amagatsha amabili kahulumeni ziwumthetho. UMarbury v. Madison ubalulekile ngoba wamisa amandla okuhlola kokwahlulela eNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. kanye nezinkantolo eziphansi zikahulumeni ngokuphathelene noMthetho-sisekelo, futhi ukucubungula kokwahlulela kungasiza ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi ijaji lihlala liyigatsha elilinganayo likahulumeni eduze kwamagatsha emithetho nesikhulu.
Inkulumo edumile evela esinqumweni, "Umsebenzi ogcizelelayo woMnyango Wokwahlulela ukusho ukuthi umthetho uyini," uye wenanela ngokwemithetho yaseMelika emakhulwini amabili eminyaka. Nakuba kungekho mthetho owathiwa awuvumelani nemithetho kwaze kwaba ngesinqumo sikaDred Scott ka-1857, indima yeNkantolo Ephakeme yokulahla imithetho kahulumeni nombuso engakaze ibekelwe inselele ngokungathi sína.
Ukulahla iSecovation: Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
Eminyakeni engaphezu kwengu - 150 ngemva kwe-Marbury v. Madison, iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhipha esinye isinqumo esasiyosusa isisekelo somphakathi waseMelika. NgoMay 17, 1954, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaseU.S. yanquma ngazwi linye ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwaphula iSichibiyelo se - 144 kuMthetho - sisekelo, owenqabela imibuso ukuba inqabe noma imuphi umuntu ongaphansi kwemibuso yayo.
Imfundiso "Yeqiniso Kodwa Elinganayo"
Isinqumo sabonisa ukuphela kobandlululo lobuhlanga olungokomthetho ezikoleni zase-United States, sidlula kakhulu isimiso "esihlukene kodwa esilinganayo" esavezwa ngo-1896 Plesty v. Indaba ka-Fernson. Cishe iminyaka engamashumi ayisithupha, isinqumo sePlesty sanikeza ukulunga okungokomthetho kobandlululo lobuhlanga phakathi kwe-United States, sivumela amazwe ukuba alondoloze izindawo ezihlukene zezakhamuzi ezimhlophe nezimnyama uma nje lezo zakhiwo zikhona zilingana.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka iyisinqumo esiyingqopha - mlando seNkantolo Ephakeme yaseUnited States esanquma ukuthi imithetho kahulumeni waseU.S. emisa ukuhlukaniswa kohlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi iphula i - Encictal Protection Claus yeSichibiyelo Se - 14, ngisho noma izakhiwo ezihlukaniswe yizinga eliphakeme.
Umgwaqo Oya EBrown
Icala lahlanganisa amacala amahlanu ahlukene avela ezifundeni ezihlukene, zonke izinhlu zezehlukaniso zesikole eziyinselele. AmaBrown neminye imikhaya yabansundu eyishumi nambili yendawo bafaka icala lekilasi enkantolo kahulumeni e-Topeka Board of Education, begunyaza inqubo yayo yokuhlukanisa i-Ountainst ayizange ivumelane ne-Scoritunial. Inkantolo ekhethekile ekhethekile yamajaji emelene namaBrown, ithembele esibonelweni sikaPlesty, kodwa amaBrown, emelelwe ngumthetho omkhulu we-NACPCP uThurmall Marshall, wadlulisa inkantolo ePhakakhulu, eyakhipha isinqumo esivumelanayo ngoMay 1954 ngokuvumelanayo 9 cishe ngomusa.
Izazi zengqondo uKenneth noMamie Clark manje abacwaningi bedoli abadumile babeyikhonzi elikhulu ekuphumeleleni kwe-LDF ku-Brown v. Board, njengoba ukuhlola kwabonisa ithonya lokukhetha phakathi kwezingane zabansundu ngokubonisa ukuthi izingane ezinsundu zaholela ekukholelweni ukuthi onodoli abamnyama babebancane kunonodoli abamhlophe.
Isinqumo soMhluleli omkhulu uWarren
IJaji eliyinhloko uWarren lanikeza umbono weNkantolo, lithi "Siphetha ngokuthi emkhakheni wemfundo yomphakathi imfundiso ethi ‘ ihlukene kodwa ilingana' ayinandawo. Izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukene azilingani. Lenkulumo enamandla yalahla amashumi eminyaka enqubo engokomthetho nenqubo yezenhlalo.
Isinqumo sango - 1954 samemezela ukuthi izindawo ezihlukene zemfundo kubafundi abamhlophe nabase - Afrika zazingalingani ngokwemvelo, futhi iBrown Board of Education ibhekwa njengengqopha - mlando emlandweni wamalungelo abantu eMelika naphakathi kwemithetho ebaluleke kakhulu emlandweni weNkantolo Ephakeme yase - United States.
Ukugcwalisa Izinselele Nomphumela Wesikhathi Eside
Nakuba isinqumo sasiwukwephula umthetho, ukusetshenziswa kwamandla kwabonakala kunzima kakhulu. Isinqumo esingamakhasi angu 14 asizange sisho indlela yokuqeda ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga ezikoleni, futhi isinqumo sesibili seNkantolo eBrown II (11955) sayala kuphela ukuba kususwe izifundazwe "ngesivinini samabomu". Lesiqondiso esingacacile saholela emashumini eminyaka empi empoqo nentuthuko ethatha kancane.
Ukuqeda ukwahlukana ezikoleni zomphakathi zalelizwe kwabangela ukusungulwa okukhulu kwenhlangano yamalungelo omphakathi, kwenza intuthuko engenzeka ekuhlukaniseni izindlu, izindawo zomphakathi, nezinhlangano zemfundo ephakeme. Isinqumo sashukumisa abashisekeli futhi sabonisa ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo ungaba ithuluzi elinamandla loshintsho lwezenhlalakahle.
Naphezu kokubaluleka kwayo, kwakunokuphikiswa okukhulu kokuqeda izinhlanga, ikakhulukazi emazweni aseningizimu, lapho kuqubuka ukubhikisha okunobudlova kwezinye izindawo, futhi ezinye zisabela ngokumisa izinhlelo "zesikole" zabafundi abamhlophe ababeza ngasese, ezicatshangelwe ngokwesiko ezikoleni.
Amalungelo Okuzala Namathuba Omuntu Omuntu Ongawatholi: Roe v. Wade (1973)
Ngo- 1973, iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhipha esinye sezinqumo zayo ezaziphikisana kakhulu eRoe v. Wade, iqaphela ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokukhipha isisu elisekelwe elungelweni lokuba wedwa. Icala laveza ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo wawuvikela ilungelo lowesifazane lokukhetha ukukhipha isisu ngaphandle kokuvinjelwa kakhulu nguhulumeni, ikakhulukazi kulowo okhulelwe kuqala.
Isinqumo Sokuqala
Isinqumo seNkantolo 7-2 kuRoe v. Wade sathi i-Unist Procession Claus eSichibiyelo seshumi nane sanikeza ilungelo eliyisisekelo lokuba wedwa elivikela ukukhetha kowesifazane okhulelwe ukukhipha isisu. Isinqumo samisa uhlelo olulinganiselwe olwalinganisela izithakazelo zikahulumeni ekuvikeleni ukuphila okungase kuvikelwe nempilo kamama nelungelo lowesifazane lokuba yedwa.
Kwaphela iminyaka ecishe ibe ngamashumi amahlanu uRoe esekela umthetho - sisekelo wamalungelo okukhipha isisu e - United States, nakuba wawulokhu uphikiswa futhi ubhekene nezinselele eziningi nemingcele phakathi neminyaka.
Isinqumo Sababi Nokuvukela
Ngo-2022, iNkantolo Ephakeme yashintsha ngokuphawulekayo izifundo zezemfundo kuDobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization, igumbuqela kokubili i-Roe v. Wade kanye nesinqumo esilandelayo ePlanned Parenthood v. Casey. INkantolo yaphetha ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo awulinikezi ilungelo lokukhipha isisu, ubuyisela igunya lokulawula ukukhishwa kwezisu ezindaweni ngazinye.
Lokhu kushintsha kwamelela esinye sezenzakalo ezibaluleke kakhulu zeNkantolo Ephakeme eyagumbuqela isandulela sayo futhi kwabangela impikiswano enkulu yesizwe mayelana namalungelo okuzala, ukuchaza umthetho - sisekelo, nendima yejaji ekuvikeleni inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye.
Ukulandisa Komongameli: United States v. Nixon (1974)
Ihlazo lamaWatergate lawo - 1970 laveza esinye sezindaba ezibaluleke kakhulu ngokuphathelene namandla aphethe nokulandisa komongameli.
Indawo Ebizwa NgeWatergate
Ngemva kokunqamuka endlunkulu yeDemocratic National Committee esakhiwo seWatergate futhi imizamo yokufihla eyalandela, umshushisi okhethekile uLeon Jaworski waqopha amakhasethi aqoshiwe ezingxoxo phakathi kukaMongameli Richard Nixon nabaqondisi bakhe. UNixon wenqaba ukuveza amakhasethi, ethi unelungelo lokuphatha.
Isinqumo seNkantolo sokubambisana
Esinqumweni esihlangene sesi-8-0 (noMahluleli uWilliam Rehnquist ezimangalela yena ngokwakhe), iNkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi nakuba ilungelo eliphethe likhona, akunakwenzeka futhi kumelwe kuthotshelwe izidingo zokwahlulela kobugebengu. INkantolo yaphetha ukuthi uMongameli kumelwe avumelane ne-pacepoena futhi aphendule amakhasethi.
UMahluleli omkhulu uWarren Burger wabhala ukuthi nakuba uMongameli enesithakazelo esingokomthetho ekufihleni imfihlo, lesisithakazelo asinakuzidlula izimfuneko eziyisisekelo zenqubo efanelekile yomthetho ekuqondiseni ngokulunga kokwahlulela kobugebengu.
Ukubaluleka Komthetho - sisekelo
I-United States v. Nixon yagcizelela isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela futhi yabonisa ukuthi ijaji lingawahlola ngokuphumelelayo amandla abaphathi ngisho nasezindabeni ezihilela uMongameli. Isinqumo saholela ngokuqondile ekuhoxeni kukaNixon emasontweni ambalwa nje kamuva, njengoba amakhasethi akhishiwe embula ukuhileleka kwakhe ekuthungeni ibhuloho.
Icala lamisa izibonelo ezibalulekile mayelana nemingcele yelungelo lokuphatha kanye nendima yamajaji ekuqinisekiseni ukulandisa emazingeni aphezulu kakhulu kahulumeni. Liseyikhomba lokuqonda ukwahlukana kwemibuso kanye nokubusa komthetho eMelika ebusa ngentando yeningi.
Imali Nezombangazwe: Izakhamuzi I - United v. Federal Evont Commission (2010)
Kwesinye sezinqumo eziphikiswana kakhulu ekhulwini lama - 21, isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme eMatizeke eUnited v. Federal Evolution Commission sashintsha kakhulu umthetho wezezimali nemali esetshenziswa kwezombangazwe eUnited States.
Isizinda Secala
Izakhamuzi i-United, inhlangano engafuni nzuzo, yaveza ifilimu egxeka uHillary Clinton phakathi nomkhankaso oyinhloko kamongameli ka-2008. I-Federal Ecomtion Community Commission yanquma ukuthi ifilimu yayenza "ukuxhumana okusemthethweni" nokuthi ukusakazwa kwayo kwakuzophula uMthetho we-Bipartisan Champaigment Reformation (owaziwa nangokuthi McCain-Fenold), owawenqabela izinhlangano nezinhlangano ukusebenzisa imali yazo ezivamile zokuxhumana eduze nokhetho.
Isinqumo 5-4
Esinqumweni esingu-5-4, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi uhulumeni ngeke avimbele izindleko zezombangazwe ezizimele zezinhlangano zezisebenzi, nezinye izinkampani. Umbono wabaningi, owabhalwa uMahluleli uAnthony Kennedy, wakholelwa ukuthi ukusetshenziswa kwezombangazwe kuwuhlobo lwenkulumo evikelwe ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo Sokuqala, futhi uhulumeni angase anganqandeli inkulumo yezombangazwe esekelwe enkampaneni yesikhulumi.
INkantolo yanquma ukuthi nakuba uhulumeni enesithakazelo esizwakalayo sokuvimbela ukonakala noma ukubonakala kwenkohlakalo, izindleko ezizimele azibenzi ukonakala okunjalo noma ukubonakala kokonakala, ezihlukanisa phakathi kweminikelo eqondile neyalabo abazoya eshashalazini.
Umphumela Kwezombangazwe ZaseMelika
IZingazana ze-United zavula umnyango wokusebenzisa imali yezombangazwe engenamingcele ngezinhlangano, izinyunyana, nezinye izinhlangano. Yaholela ekwandeni kwamaPicia (Amakomiti Okwenza Imisebenzi Ezikhulu) angaphakamisa futhi achithe imali engenamkhawulo ukuze asekele noma aphikise abazofuna ezombangazwe, uma nje bengaxhumani ngqo nemikhankaso yabazofuna ukubhapathizwa.
Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lesisinqumo siye savumela abantu abacebile nezinkampani ukuba babe nethonya elingenakulinganiswa ngokhetho nangokwenza izimiso, bacindezele izakhamuzi ezivamile ngokuphumelelayo. Abasekeli baphikisa ngokuthi sivikela amalungelo okukhuluma futhi sivumela inkulumo eqinile yezombangazwe.
Lesi sinqumo sisalokhu siphikisana kakhulu futhi siye sabangela izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ngendima yemali kwezombangazwe, isimo sokuba izinhlangano ezizimele, nokuchazwa okufanele kweSichibiyelo Sokuqala emongweni wezimali zomkhankaso.
Amacala Enkantolo Aphakeme Ezwe Engeziwe
Miranda v. e - Arizona (1966)
Miranda ne-Arizona bamisa imfuneko yokuba izikhulu zomthetho zisolwe ngamalungelo azo omthetho-sisekelo ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwelungelo lokuthola imvume. "Izixwayiso zeMiranda" zihlanganisa ilungelo elidumile lokuthula, isixwayiso sokuthi noma yini eshiwoyo ingasetshenziswa ngokumelene nosolwayo enkantolo, ilungelo kummeli, nelungelo lokumiswa ummeli uma engenakukwazi ukuthenga.
Icala lavela lapho uErnesto Miranda eboshwa futhi evuma icala ngaphandle kokutshelwa ngamalungelo akhe. INkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi umshushisi wayengenakusebenzisa izinkulumo ezisuka ekuphenyweni kwelungelo ngaphandle kokuba abonise ukusetshenziswa kwezikhungo eziphumelelayo zokuvikela ilungelo ngokumelene nokuzimela.
Lesi sinqumo siye saba nethonya elikhulu emithethweni yokugcinwa komthetho kulo lonke elase - United States futhi sesigxile kakhulu esikweni elithandwayo labantu baseMelika. Izixwayiso zeMiranda manje seziyingxenye evamile yezinqubo zokubopha futhi ziye zavezwa emibukisweni eminingi yethelevishini nakumabhayisikobho.
UGideon (1963)
KuGideon, iNkantolo Ephakeme yavumelana ngokuthi ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo Sesithupha kudingeka ukuba kunikezwe abameli abamangalelwa abangakwazi ukukhokhela abameli babo siqu.
UClarence Earl Gideon wamangalelwa ngokuphula nokungena eFlorida, engakwazi ukukhokhela ummeli, wacela ukuba inkantolo imenzele enye, kodwa isicelo sakhe sanqatshelwa. uGideyoni wazimela futhi walahlwa icala. Esejele, wanikeza isicelo eNkantolo Ephakeme ephikisa ngokuthi amalungelo akhe omthetho - sisekelo ayephulwe.
Isinqumo seNkantolo kuGidione samisa isimiso sokuthi ukumelelwa komthetho kusemqoka ekuqulweni kwecala elilungile nokuthi uhulumeni kumelwe anikeze abamangalelwa abamangalelwa abanecala. Lesi sinqumo saholela ekusungulweni kwezimiso zomphakathi kulo lonke elase-United States futhi sanwebeka kakhulu ekutholeni imvume yokukhombisa abamangalelwa abampofu.
Uthando Virginia (1967)
I-Ornician enothando yamisa imithetho evimbela ukushada ngokwezinhlanga, iphethe ukuthi imithetho enjalo yaphula kokubili i-Aumelt Protection Claus ne-Act Claus yeSichibiyelo se-14. Icala lalihilela uRichard noMildred Loving, umbhangqwana wezinhlanga ezihlukene owagwetshwa unyaka wonke ejele eVirginia ngenxa yokwephula umthetho kahulumeni omelene nomthetho wokunqanda ukuhlukana.
Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme savumelana sathi umshado uyilungelo eliyisisekelo lomphakathi futhi ukuvimbela umshado osekelwe ekuhlukaniseni ngokobuhlanga kuphula uMthetho-sisekelo. IJaji eliyinhloko u-Earl Warren labhala ukuthi “inkululeko yokushada sekuyisikhathi eside iqashelwa njengenye yamalungelo abalulekile omuntu siqu abalulekile abalulekile ekufuneni injabulo ngokuhlelekile kwabantu abakhululekile."
Lesi sinqumo saqeda imithetho efanayo ezifundazweni ezingu - 16 futhi savula indlela yezenzakalo ezizokwandayo zamalungelo omshado, kuhlanganise nesinqumo sango - 2015 e - Obergefell v. Hodges, eyaqaphela ukushada kwabantu abangokobulili obufanayo njengelungelo lomthetho-sisekelo.
USullivan (1964)
Lelicala eliyingqophamlando iSichibiyelo Sokuqala lamisa indinganiso "yonya" yecala elihlazisayo elihilela izibalo zomphakathi. INkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi izikhulu zomphakathi azinakukwazi ukubuyisa umonakalo ngenxa yamanga angcolile ahlobene nokuziphatha kwazo okungokomthetho ngaphandle kokuba zifakazele ukuthi lamazwi ashiwo ngonya olungokoqobo, okungukuthi, ngolwazi ukuthi ayeyinkohliso noma ngokunganaki ukuthi ayengamanga noma cha.
Leli cala lavela esikhangisweni se - New York Times esasinamaphutha athile ayiqiniso ngokuphathelene nezenzo zamaphoyisa phakathi nokubhikisha kwamalungelo omphakathi eMontgomery, e - Alabama, uL.B. Sullivan, ikhomishane yedolobha, yamangalela i - labblic futhi yawina ezinkantolo zase - Alabama.
INkantolo Ephakeme yashintsha, ikholelwa ukuthi iSichibiyelo Sokuqala sidinga indinganiso ephakeme yobufakazi emacaleni ahlanjalazwayo ahilela izikhulu zomphakathi ukuze ziqiniseke ukuthi kunezimpikiswano ezinkulu ezindabeni zomphakathi.
Des Moines Independent School District (1969)
Des Moines wasungula ukuthi abafundi aba "wachithi amalungelo abo omthetho-mthetho enkululeko yokukhuluma noma yokukhuluma esangweni lesikole. Icala lalihilela abafundi ababefake izibambo ezimnyama esikoleni ukuze baphikise iMpi yaseVietnam futhi belekwe ngenxa yokwenza kanjalo.
INkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi isifunda sesikole sephula amalungelo abafundi eSichibiyelo sokuqala. IJaji u-Abe Fortas wabhala ukuthi ukuze izikhulu zesikole zithethelele ukucubungula amazwi omfundi, kumelwe zibonise ukuthi ukuziphatha “ngokungokoqobo nakakhulu kungaphazamisa" ukusebenza kwesikole.
Lesi sinqumo siye saba esiyisisekelo ekuchazeni izinga lamalungelo abafundi ezikoleni zomphakathi futhi siyaqhubeka sicashunwa ezimweni ezihilela ukubonakaliswa kwabafundi, kusukela ezimisweni zokugqoka kuya ezikhungweni zezokuxhumana.
Ukuqonda Indima YeNkantolo Ephakeme Ebuthweni Lentando Yeningi LaseMelika
Amandla Okuchaza Ukwahlulela
Amandla eNkantolo Ephakeme okuchaza uMthetho-sisekelo awunikeza ithonya elikhulu emthethweni nasemphakathini waseMelika. Ngezinqumo zayo, iNkantolo inquma ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo usho ukuthini ekusebenzeni, isebenzise izimiso zekhulu le-18 ezisezinkingeni ezingama-21 eziphambili. Lokhu kuchaza kuvumela iNkantolo ukuba ivumelanise izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo nezimo ezishintshayo kuyilapho ilondoloza ukuqhubekela phambili nezindinganiso eziyisisekelo.
Amajaji ahlukene asebenzisa incazelo yomthetho-sisekelo ngezindlela ezihlukene. Abaqondisi bezokuqala bafuna ukuchaza uMthetho-sisekelo ngokusekelwe encazelweni yawo yokuqala yomphakathi ngesikhathi usungulwa ngaso. Abaphili bomthetho-sisekelo baphikisa ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo kufanele uchazwe ngokwezindinganiso eziguquguqukayo nezindinganiso zasikhathi. Lezi zinqubo ezihlukene ziholela eziphethweni ezihlukene ngokuphathelene nalokho uMthetho-sisekelo ofuna ukuba kwenziwe.
Inqubo Yokumisa Nokubaluleka Kwayo
Amajaji eNkantolo ePhakeme amiswa nguMongameli futhi kumelwe aqinisekiswe yiSigele. Ngenxa yokuthi amajaji asebenza ukuphila (noma kuze kube yilapho ekhetha ukuthatha umhlala-phantsi), ukumiswa ngakunye kungamisa umthetho waseMelika amashumi amaningi eminyaka. Inqubo yokumisa iye yaqala ukuphikisana, ngokuhlola kakhulu amafilosofi okwahlulela amakhosi futhi yabikezela izindlela zokuvota ezindabeni eziyinhloko.
Ukuhlelwa kweNkantolo kuthinta izinqumo zayo kakhulu. INkantolo eneningi elidla ngoludala ingafinyelela iziphetho ezingafani kuneningi eliziphethe ngezindaba ezisukela kumalungelo okukhipha isisu kuya ekulawuleni izibhamu kuya ekuqondiseni indawo ezungezile. Leliqiniso liye lamisa ukumiswa kweNkantolo Ephakeme phakathi kwezinqumo ezilandela uMongameli azenzayo.
Iqhinga Nestartic Deccis
Isimiso sokubheka ngokubheka − isiLatin se-"ukuma ngokwezinto ezinqunyiwe"") iphethe ukuthi izinkantolo kufanele zilandele izimpawu futhi zingazinzisi izindaba. Lesimiso sikhuthaza ukuzinza, ukubikezela, nokungaguquguquki emthethweni. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme ingazilawula ezayo izehlakalo lapho iphetha ngokuthi isinqumo sangaphambili sasinqunywe ngokungalungile noma asisasebenzi.
Isinqumo sokulawula inqubo elandelwayo sibalulekile futhi siphikisana nempikiswano. Nakuba abanye bephikisa ngokuthi ukulungisa amaphutha omthetho-sisekelo kubalulekile, abanye baphikisa ngokuthi izenzakalo ezivame ukubhidliza umthetho nokuthembela komphakathi enkantolo. Ukuguqulwa kwamuva kweRoe v. Wade esinqumweni seDobbs kuye kwaqinisa izimpikiswano ngokuthi iNkantolo kufanele igumbuqele isikhathi eside nini.
Umphumela Wezinqumo Zenkantolo Ephakeme Ekuphileni Kwansuku Zonke
Ubulungisa Bobugebengu Nomthetho Ophoqelelwayo
Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziyithinta kakhulu indlela ukugcinwa komthetho okusebenza ngayo nendlela abamangalelwa abaphathwa ngayo. Icala elinjengoMiranda noGiodeon liphinde limise isivikelo esiyisisekelo kubantu abamangalelwe ngobugebengu. Ezinye izinqumo ziye zadingida izindaba ezinjengokufuna nokuthatheka, isigwebo sokufa, namalungelo eziboshwa.
Lezi zinqumo zilinganisela inzuzo encintisanayo: isidingo sokugcinwa komthetho nokuphepha komphakathi okuphumelelayo ngakolunye uhlangothi, kanye nokuvikelwa kwamalungelo abantu ngabanye nokuvikelwa kukahulumeni ngokuphaphanyiswa ngakolunye. Izinqumo zenqubo yobugebengu yeNkantolo zithinta izigidi zamaMelika asebenzelana nesimiso somthetho womthetho unyaka ngamunye.
Imfundo Namathuba Alinganayo
Kusukela kuBrown v. Board of Education kuya emacaleni amuva kakhulu aphathelene nokuvuma nokukhetha isikole, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaba nendima eyinhloko ekulolongeni imfundo yaseMelika. Lezi zinqumo zithinta indawo izingane eziya kuyo esikoleni, imithombo eziyitholayo, kanye namathuba ezinawo okuthuthuka.
INkantolo iye yaphendula imibuzo mayelana nokuxhasa isikole ngokwezimali, ukubonakaliswa kwenkolo ezikoleni, amalungelo abafundi, nokungamukeleki kwezimiso zokuvuma ezingekho ngokohlanga. Isinqumo ngasinye siveza izimpikiswano ezibanzi ngokulingana, ithuba, nendima kahulumeni ekukhuthazeni noma ekunqandeni ukucabangela uhlanga nezinye izici.
Inkululeko Yokukhuluma Nenkulumo
ISichibiyelo sokuQala sokuvikela inkululeko yokukhuluma siye sachazwa futhi sasetshenziswa iNkantolo Ephakeme ezimweni eziningi. Ukusuka ekukhulumeni kwezombangazwe nasemkhankasweni wezimali kuya ekungcoleni nasekukhulumeni ngenzondo, iNkantolo iye yachaza imingcele yokukhuluma okuvikelekile.
Lezi zinqumo zithinta lokho abantu abangase bakusho, ukuthi bangakushophi, nokuthi imiphi imiphumela abangase babhekane nayo lapho bekhuluma.
Ukuba Wedwa Nokuzitika Komuntu Siqu
Nakuba igama elithi "privcy" lingaveli eMthethweni, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela amalungelo ezindaba zomuntu siqu ahlukahlukene athathwe kumalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo ahlukene. Lamalungelo aye asetshenziswa ezindabeni ezisukela ekuvimbeleni inzalo nasekukhipheni isisu kuya ebuhlotsheni obuhlangene phakathi kobuhlobo bokuziphatha obuhlukile nomshado.
Amacala ezindaba zomuntu siqu avame ukuhlanganisa izinqumo ezijulile zomuntu siqu ngomkhaya, ubuhlobo, nokuzibusa. Izinqumo zeNkantolo kulendaba zibonisa ukuthi iphethe inqubo yezenhlalo kanye nezimpikiswano eziqhubekayo eziphathelene nobukhulu obufanele begunya likahulumeni ngokuphathelene nesinqumo somuntu siqu.
Ukugxekwa Nezimpikiswano
Imithetho Yokwahlulela imelene
Abagxeki kuwo wonke umehluko wezombangazwe baye bamangalela iNkantolo Ephakeme yezenzo zokwahlulela − ukwenza izinqumo ezisekelwe ekukhetheni komuntu siqu noma kwezombangazwe kunokuba kusekelwe ezimisweni zomthetho ezingathathi hlangothi. Labo abasekela ukunqatshelwa komthetho baphikisa ngokuthi izinkantolo kufanele zithobele amagatsha akhethiwe kahulumeni futhi zigweme ukwakha amalungelo amasha noma izinqubo ezingasekelwenga ngokucacile embhalweni woMthetho-sisekelo.
Abasekeli bendima yokwahlulela ekhuthele kakhulu baphikisa ngokuthi izinkantolo kumelwe zivikele amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo ngisho nalapho ukwenza kanjalo kungathandeki, nokuthi ulimi olubanzi loMthetho-sisekelo ludinga ukuchazwa nokusetshenziswa kwezimo ezintsha. Le mpikiswano iveza ukungavumelani okuyisisekelo ngendima efanele yezinkantolo edemokrasi.
Ukulunga Nokuthenjwa Umphakathi
Igunya leNkantolo Ephakeme ekugcineni lixhomeke ekwamukelweni komphakathi ezinqumweni zayo. Ngokungafani negatsha eliphethe, iNkantolo ayinabuphophopho ukuba iphoqelele imithetho yayo. Ngokungafani negatsha lemithetho, alinacala eliqondile kubavoti. Inkantolo ifanele ukuqamba icala ukuthi inquma amacala asekelwe emthethweni kunezombangazwe.
Izimpikiswano zamuva, kuhlanganise nezimpi zokuqinisekisa eziphikisanayo nezinqumo ezigumbuqela izenzakalo zesikhathi eside, ziye zaphakamisa ukukhathazeka ngokuncipha kokuthembela komphakathi eNkantolweni. Izinhlalo zibonisa ukuhlukana okukhulayo kwemibono yeNkantolo, ngokuvunyelwa ngokuvamile kuye ngokuthi izinqumo zamuva ziyavumelana yini nemibono yomuntu yezombangazwe.
Izimfuneko Zokuguqula Izwe
Kuye kwenziwa iziphakamiso ezihlukahlukene zokuguqula iNkantolo Ephakeme, kuhlanganise nemingcele ebekwayo yamajaji, ukwandisa inani lokwahlulela, nokushintsha inqubo yokumisa. Abasekeli baphikisa ngokuthi izinguquko ziyadingeka ukuze kuncishiswe izintambo zokumiswa komuntu ngamunye, ziqinisekise ukuguqulwa njalo, futhi zibuyisele ukuthembana komphakathi. Abaphikisi baphikisa ngokuthi izinguquko ezinjalo zingenza iNkantolo iqhubeke futhi zilulaze ukukhululeka kokwahlulela.
Indlela Yokuhlala Uzazi Izinqumo Zenkantolo Ephakeme
Ngemva Komsebenzi Wenkantolo
Igalelo leNkantolo Ephakeme liqala ngo-October kuya kuJune noma ekuqaleni kukaJuly unyaka ngamunye. INkantolo ilalela izimpikiswano zomlomo emacaleni akhethiwe nasemacaleni abhalwe phansi achaza izinqumo zayo. Le mibono ikhona obala futhi inikeza izizathu eziningi zesiphetho seNkantolo.
Imithombo eminingi ingasiza izakhamuzi ukuba zihlale zinolwazi ngomsebenzi weNkantolo. Iwebhusayithi esemthethweni yeNkantolo Ephakeme imemezela imibono, amaphepha adluliselwe ngomlomo, nekhalenda leNkantolo. Amawebhusayithi ezindaba ezingokomthetho nezinhlangano zinikeza ukuhlaziywa nokuhlaziywa kwezindaba ezizayo nezinqumo zamuva. Izikole eziningi zomthetho kanye namathangi ezokuhlola zinikeza izincazelo ezifinyelelekayo zezindaba eziyinkimbinkimbi zomthetho zezilaleli ezivamile.
Ukuqonda Ukuhlaziya Okungokomthetho
Ukufunda imibono yeNkantolo Ephakeme kungaba yinselele kulabo abangaqeqeshiwe ngokomthetho, kodwa ukuqonda izisekelo eziyisisekelo zokucabanga okungokomthetho kungenza zitholakale. Imibono ihlanganisa inkulumo yamaqiniso, ingxoxo yezindaba zomthetho, ukuhlaziywa kwezimiso ezihambelanayo nomthetho - sisekelo, kanye nokusekela nokucabanga kweNkantolo.
Imibono engavumelani, ebhalwe abahluleli abaphikisana neningi, ngokuvamile inikeza imibono ewusizo ehlukile futhi ingase ithonye izimpikiswano zesikhathi esizayo. Imibono ephindwayo ivumelana nomphumela kodwa inikeza ukucabanga okuhlukile. ukufunda imibono eminingi ezimweni ezibalulekile kunikeza ukuqonda okugcwele kwezimpikiswano ezingokomthetho nezingokwezimiso ezihilelekile.
Ikusasa Lomthetho Womthetho - sisekelo
Izindaba Ezivusayo
INkantolo Ephakeme iyaqhubeka ibhekana nezinselele ezintsha njengoba ubuchwepheshe, umphakathi, kanye nomnotho kushintsha.
Ingxenye ngayinye yalezindawo inikeza imibuzo enzima mayelana nendlela yokusebenzisa izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo ezathathwa emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka adlule ezimweni abasunguli ababengeke bazicabange. Izinqumo zeNkantolo ziyobumba umthetho waseMelika nomphakathi wezizukulwane ezizayo.
Ukubaluleka Kokuhlanganyela Isivumelwano Sesigqi
Nakuba amajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme engakhethwa, izakhamuzi zingasithonya isiqondiso seNkantolo ngenqubo yezombangazwe. Ukhetho lomongameli lunquma ukuthi ubani ozomisa amajaji esikhathi esizayo, futhi amajaji eNkantolo anquma ukuthi ubani ozowaqinisekisa. Ukuqonda ukubaluleka kokumiswa kokwahlulela kungazisa izinqumo zokuvota.
Ngaphandle kokhetho, izakhamuzi zingahlanganyela ezindabeni zomthetho-sisekelo ngezinhlangano zezezimali, imfundo yomphakathi, nengxoxo yolwazi. Izakhamuzi ezifundelwe kahle zibalulekile ekulondolozeni idemokrasi enempilo futhi ziqinisekise ukuthi amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo avikelwe futhi ahlonishwe.
Amasihluthulelo Okuthatha Izindawo: Isizathu Sokuba Lamacala Abaluleke
Izehlulelo zeNkantolo ePhakeme ezikhulu okuxoxwa ngazo kulesi sihloko zimelela izikhathi ezibalulekile emlandweni wezomthetho waseMelika. Ukusuka kuMarbury v. Ukumiswa kukaMadison kokubukeza kokwahlulela kuBrown v. Ibhodi yokususa i-paration yemfundo, ukusuka eMiranda v. Ukuvikelwa kwezelele zamagebengu ezigwetshweni ezibhebheni zezentengo zezentengo eUnited', lezi zinqumo ziye zaguqula amalungelo esiwajabulelayo nomphakathi esiphila kuwo.
Ukuqonda lezi zimo kusisiza ukuba siqaphele ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo usebenza kanjani njengesimiso esiphilayo sokubusa, indlela ijaji elisebenza ngayo njengenhlolo-hlolo emandla kahulumeni, nendlela izimiso zomthetho ezishintsha ngayo ukuze zixazulule izinselele ezintsha. Lezi zinqumo zisikhumbuza ukuthi amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo awayona imiqondo engaqondakali kodwa ayisivikelo esiwusizo esithinta ukuphila kwabantu bangempela.
Umsebenzi weNkantolo Ephakeme uyaqhubeka ubangela izimpikiswano nempikiswano, uveza ukungavumelani okuyisisekelo ngencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo, indima yezinkantolo embusweni wentando yeningi, nokulingana phakathi kwamalungelo omuntu ngamunye nezithakazelo zomphakathi. Ngokuhlola amacala angokomlando nokuqonda izimiso ezizimisayo, izakhamuzi zingahlanganyela kangcono kulezimpikiswano ezibucayi futhi zisize ekulolongeni ikusasa lomthetho womthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika.
Kulabo abanesithakazelo sokufunda okwengeziwe ngezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme kanye nemiphumela yayo, imithombo enjengewebhusayithi yeNkantolo engokomthetho , inikeza ukwaziswa okufinyelelweyo ngezindaba, izimpikiswano zomlomo, nenqubo yokwahlulela. [[FLT:] i-Anvertitution Anutic [[FLT:] [[FLT]] ne-[FLT] e-ULT] esuka e-Ibhukwini le-Ibhusayithi ye-U.S. ikhonsa i-Eduraclate [[FLT] ehlelayomthetho]
Isimiso sokwahlulela singabonakala siyinkimbinkimbi futhi siqhelelene nokuphila kwansuku zonke, kodwa izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme zithinta cishe zonke izici zomphakathi waseMelika. Ngokuqonda lamacala aphawula izenzakalo, sizuza ukuqonda ngendlela amalungelo ethu achazwa ngayo, indlela amandla kahulumeni alinganiselwe ngayo, nendlela uMthetho-sisekelo oqhubeka ngayo ulolonga isizwe sethu ngemva kwamakhulu amabili eminyaka. Lolwazi lusinika amandla okuba izakhamuzi ezifundile, ezikwazi ukuhileleka ngokomthetho nasezimpikiswaneni zezombangazwe ezithinta imiphakathi nezwe lethu.