Isisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Sokulingana

Isiqinisekiso sokulingana singenye yezimiso ezihlala njalo neziphikiswana kakhulu kumthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Nakuba iSimemezelo senkululeko samemezela ukuthi bonke abantu badalwe belingana, kwathatha cishe iminyaka eyikhulu ukuze kutholakale leyo njongo ecacile kuMthetho-sisekelo. Ukwenziwa kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo sango-1868 kwaphawula inkathi yokushintsha, ukuveza i-Encility Protectal Claus, okuyala ukuba kungabikho mbuso ozophika noma yimuphi umuntu onegunya elilinganayo lemithetho. Lomusho owodwa uye waveza ukuvikelwa kwemithetho okungaphezulu kweNkanto engathi yisiphi esinye ilungiselelo somthetho futhi uye wasebenza njengemoto eyinhloko yokuqhubekela amalungelo ezizukulwaneni ngonyaka.

Umongo ongokomlando weSichibiyelo seshumi nane ubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuqothulwa kwaso. Inguquko yahloselwe ukuvikela amalungelo abantu base-Afrika abasanda kukhululeka ngokomthetho kahulumeni onobutha. Ingxenye Yokuqala, equkethe kokubili i-Sex Procesme Clause ne-Moncile Protection Clauslee, yayiklanyelwe ukwenza izimiso zomthetho ngokomthetho ze-Civil Rights Act ka-1866. Nokho abahleli be-parementment be-antement basebenzisa ulimi olubanzi ngamabomu, futhi kusukela ekuchazeni i-Calcime Protection Claus engcono kakhulu engokomongokwakuqala kwezinhlanga, ukuhlanganisa ukuhlelwa kwezimiso ezisekelwe ebulilini, ezingosini zobufolo, ezingekho emthethweni, ezingekho emthethweni, nokuziphethe ngokocanda.

Incazelo yeNkantolo yokulingana ayikamiswa. Izinqumo zokuqala ekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi namashumi amabili namashumi amabili zavame ukunciphisa ukufinyelela kokulunga. ICivil Rights Cases [ ka1883] isekela ngokunedumela okukhulu ukucwa kwemithetho kahulumeni enqabela ukucwasana kwangasese, ukuhlanganisa iSivikeli Esilinganayo sika-Claus ukuba simise isenzo. Pyv.[FLT] [1866] [186]) isekela ukucwaswa kwezinhlanga ngaphansi kwemfundiso ehlukene kodwa elinganayo, isinqumo esicishe sibe amashumi ayisithupha eminyaka. Ukuqonda lesi sizathu sibalulekile kubafundisi nabafundi ngoba sibonisa ukuthi incazelo yomthetho womphakathi phakathi kwezinhlangano zezenhlalo, ukuchazana kwezezezezezemthetho, inqubo yomthetho wokwahlulela.

Izimbangela Eziyisisekelo: Umgwaqo Oya KuBrown

UPlesty u - Ferguson (1896) Nemfundiso Ehlukile

Akukho ukuqonda ukulingana kwe-jurispruudence okuphelele ngaphandle kokulwa Pnety v. Ferguson. . Homer Plesty, owayeno-7-88ms mhlophe no-Black, wabekela i-Louisiana's Exect ngamabomu insect ngokunqaba ukushiya imoto yesitimela kuphela. INkantolo Ephakeme, esibhalwe nguMahluleli kaHenry Bills Brown, yasekela umthetho, ukuthi i-gnobo akuzange kubonise ukuthi isithunzi sohlanga olulinganayo noma yisiphi isikhathi eside izakhiwo ezazilungiselelwe. UJastical Harlans waveza ukuphikisana komjikelezodwa komkhakhanyo odumileyo, futhi u-onke u-onke kamuva, u-G.

Imiphumela engokoqobo ye yayiwukugunyaza isimiso esibanzi sokuzithoba kohlanga eNingizimu. Izindawo ezihlukene zemfundo, ezokuthutha, zokuhlala, nezindawo zomphakathi zazingalingani neze ngezinga eliphezulu noma ngezimali. Imfundiso yaphikelela iminyaka ecishe ibe ngamashumi ayisithupha, isekelwe indlela yeNkantolo yokusondela engcono kumandla kahulumeni nakukufunda kwayo okuncane iSiphendulo se-14. INaACP Evolution, iholwa uThurfable Marshall, yachitha amashumi eminyaka alandelanayo amashumi amaningi ekwakhela ubufakazi bokubonisa ukuthi izindawo ezihlukeneyo zazingalingani ngokuzenzekelayo, zipheleliswa esinqumweni esivelele [[FLT:] Brown. v VFFODY]

IKraemer (1948) ne - State Action Doctrine

Phambi Brown, iNkantolo yathatha isinyathelo esibalulekile ekulinganiseni ubandlululo lobuhlanga .[FLT] shelley v. Kraemer[. Lecala lakhuluma ngezivumelwano zobuhlanga ezivimbela ukuthengiswa kwempahla kubantu base-Afrika. Inkantolo yathi nakuba izivumeko zaziyizivumelwano zangasese, ukugcinwa kwemithetho yesivumelwano ephethe i-alcivise quet. Le komiti ayizange iyilahle izivumelwano ezivimbela imingcele, kodwa yazenza zingadibaniseki, izivumelwano eziwusizo ezinhlabeni zokuhlala.

Icala Lenkantolo Ephakeme Elibonisa Ukulingana

Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Ukufa Kokuhlukaniswa

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo[FLT] ibhekwa kabanzi njengesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme yekhulu lama-20. Icala lahlanganisa izinselele ezinhlanu ezihlukene ukuze zibekwe izikole zomphakathi eKansas, eSouth Carolina, eDelaware, nase-Folica. Ijaji elikhulu i-Earl Warrenton, ibhale iNkanto engobunye, ikholelwa ukuthi izakhiwo zemfundo ezibekwe ngokwezingalinganiyo zazingalingani futhi zaphula isivikelo sikaClaus. Inkantolo yayithembele ebufakazini bezesayensi yezesayensi eveza ukulimala okungokwengqondo okwenziwa kubantwana base-Afrika.

Isinqumo sagumbuqela imfundiso ehlukene kodwa elinganayo futhi samisa uchungechunge lwezehlakalo ezazizoguqula umphakathi waseMelika. Ukufezwa kwabonakala kunzima kakhulu kunesinqumo ngokwaso, futhi iNkantolo yakhipha isinqumo sesibili Brown II[ (185] (ifuna ukususwa kwesivumelwano ngesivinini esikhulu, amazwi avumela ukumelana okukhulu. Lendaba iMibuso yaseNingizimu ehileleke ekuphikiseni okukhulu, ukuvala izikole nokumisa imithetho yokubalekela ukubusa. Yathatha enye i-Brown kanye ne-garrectal Act of Human Rights ka-194949 ukuze iqale ukuhlanganisa izinto ezinenjongo. ] [FLD:]] Lo mkhondo uhlala uyisisekelo wetshe wesivikelo sanamuhla esilingana ne-HProuppernetic.

Korematsu v. waseUnited States (1944): A E - Epicheal Tale

Ingxoxo ebanzi yokulingana kumelwe futhi ivume ukuhluleka kweNkantolo. Korematsu v. United States, iNkantolo yasekela ukuhlangana kwamaJapane aphoqelelwe phakathi neMpi Yezwe II, isebenzisa izinga lokuhlola okuqinile uhulumeni anelisekile. Isinqumo siyisixwayiso mayelana namalungelo omthetho wemithetho-mthetho phakathi nezikhathi zenhlekelele yesizwe futhi siye sagxekwa kakhulu. Yalahlwa ngokuphumelelayo [[FLTLT:]p. Hawaii[FLT] v[FLT:] [208]

Uthando Virginia (1967): Ilungelo Lokushada Ngaphandle Kwemingcele Yohlanga

iboshelwa ukuphuma kanye. Virginia[FLT], iNkantolo ePhakeme ngazwi linye yalwa noMthetho we-Virginia we-Iniversal Intelligence, owawenqabela umshado wezinhlanga. URichard noMildred Longlie, indoda emhlophe nowesifazane omnyama, babeboshelwe futhi bagwetshelwe unyaka ejele ngenxa yokushada eWashington, D.C., futhi bahlala eVirginia. INkantolo yathi imithetho yezinhlanga yayivimbela kokubili i-Claus Evikela i-Claus neNdlela yokuthula ye-Gradient ye-Gradient.

Isinqumo sasinezilinganiso eziningana ezibalulekile. Okokuqala, iNkantolo yanqaba impikiswano yokuthi isivikelo esilinganayo saneliswa ngoba umthetho wawusebenza ngokulinganayo kuzo zombili izinhlanga, iphawula ukuthi izinhlanga zazingaphansi kokuhlola okuqinile. Okwesibili, iNkantolo yaqaphela ukushada njengelungelo eliyisisekelo ngaphansi kwe-Curtive Process Claus, isimiso kamuva esasizobonakala sigxeka emacaleni omshado afanayo aphakathi. Isigqebhekile:[[ Lesinqumo salulaza imithetho elwa no-miscegene ehlangene esho ukuthi ingu-16 esazilondoloza futhi sisusa insika ephakeme emhlophe engokomthetho eMelika.

URegents waseYunivesithi yaseCalifornia v. Bakke (1978)

Indaba yokuvuma yafinyelela eNkantolo . Isinqumo sokuvuma safinyelela eNkantolo , isinqumo esididayo esaveza imibono ehlukene eyisithupha. INkantolo yathi amasuntswana ezinhlanga ayengaqondakali kodwa ukuthi uhlanga lungathathwa njengesici esisodwa phakathi kwezinqumo eziningi ezivumelwayo. IJaji Lewis Powell's ichaza ukuhlukahluka kwemfundo njengesithakazelo esiqinile esivumela ukuthathelwa imibandela yezinhlanga. Lesi sinqumo samisa uhlakalo lwezenzo zokuzimela izenzo zobuhlanga eziqinile eminyakeni engu-4 kufikela iNkathi yeNkanto yeNkantolo [FT] [FT] [FT] [FT]

UHade (1973) Nokwehlukana Okungalingani

Nakuba Roe v. [[FLT]] ikhunjulwa ngokuyinhloko njengendawo yemfihlo nenqumbi efanelekile, imibuzo yokulingana yafakwa kakhulu ecaleni. INkantolo yaqaphela ukuthi ikhono lokulawula ukuphila kokuzalana libalulekile kubesifazane ekuhlanganyeleni kwezenhlalo nakwezomnotho emadodeni. Isinqumo samisa isilinganiso esilinganiselwe sokulinganisela isilinganiso selungelo lowesifazane lokuba abe wedwa mayelana nezindaba zikahulumeni empilweni kamamayo nokuphila. [[FLT:] Isinqumo sibuye se-'umbuzo:[FLT] [FLD] [FLD] [5] ku-FOLT] kokubili amalungelo okuzalayo kanye nabaphikisi bezombangazwe.[3] [3] [3]

I-United States v. Windsor (2013): Ukuqashelwa kwe-Federal of Friear - Sex Dage

[FLT] United States v. Umoya [[FLT]] wabekela iSiqeshana 3 se-Defense of Marriance Act (DOMA]), esichaza umshado wezinjongo zikahulumeni njengobuhlobo bomyeni nowesifazane. u-Edith Windsor no-Thea Spyer babeshade eCanada futhi bahlala eNew York, eyaqaphela umshado wabo. Lapho u-Spenger eshona, uWinds waphoqelelwa ukuba akhokhe ngaphezu kuka-R3,63,000 entela yezwe ngenxa yokuthi iDoMA yavimbela i-International Revolution Services Inkonzo yabo. INkakhulu yashaya isigaba 3 njengokwephulwa kwe-Creast Claus, iphethe ukuthi uhulumeni ongenakuhlukanisa ngaphansi komthetho ongokomthetho ongokomthetho ongokomthetho ongokomthetho ongokomthetho ongokomthetho.

Isenzo: Lesisinqumo sabuyisela izinzuzo zikahulumeni eziyizinkulungwane zemibhangqwana eshadile esemthethweni engongokwabesifazane futhi samisa isigaba sokunquma kweNkantolo kamuva ngokulingana komshado. isibonakaliso:[ Saphawula isikhathi sokuqala lapho iNkantolo iqaphela ukuthi imithetho ehlasela ungqingili nongqingili ingaphula izivumelwano zomthetho-mfashini ezisemthethweni zokuvikela okufanayo.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015: Umshado Ukulingana Kwesizwe

Iminyaka emibili ngemva , iNkantolo yaqeda umsebenzi wokuvikela ukuvinjelwa komshado ezizweni ezine. Obergefell v. Hodges.. Icala lihlanganisa izinselele ezisemshadweni ofanayo-wekhulu [kuvinjelwa kwezifunda ezine]. UMahluleli uAnthony Kennedy, ubhalela imishado yeningi, ukholelwa ukuthi ilungelo lokushada liyilungelo eliyisisekelo ngaphansi kweNhlelo olufanele neSivikelo sika Claus nalelo-Claus (Indlela) nokuthi imibhangqwana efanayo-ethene ngeke iphucwe ukuthi ikhiphe lokho okushiwoyo. Isinqumo sonke sisho ukuthi wonke amalayisense amacala omshado avunyelwe ukubheka ngokusemthethweni futhi aqapheleka ezinye izigabane.

I-ISPAC: Lesinqumo esingokomthetho esisemthethweni somshado oxubile ezweni lonke, siqinisekisa isithunzi nokulingana kwe LGBTQ+ abantu ngabanye nemikhaya yabo. Imelela isiphetho samashumi eminyaka e-advocacy necebo lomthetho nge-LGBTQ+ amalungelo futhi yasungula ukuthi izimpawu zobulili zihlolwe kakhulu ngaphansi kweSivikeli sika Claus.

Ukubukeka Okushintshashintshayo Kokulingana

Ukulingana Kwezinhlanga Nenkantolo

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yakhuluma ngokucwasana kwabesilisa nabesifazane ngaphansi kweSikhungo sika-1970. Ibuye yabizwa ngokuthi i-Reed v. (1971], iNkantolo yashaya umthetho weIdaho wakhetha amadoda phezu kwabesifazane njengabalawuli bezindawo, ephawula isikhathi sokuqala iNkantolo isebenzisa iSivikeli Esilinganayo sika Claus ukuze iqede umthetho wesisekelo sobulili. [[FLT:] [FLT]] Fitro v. Richardson[FLT:][3] [12]), ubuningi beNkanto yeNkantolo buthi obuthiwe ukuba kucazwe ukuthi ubulili kufanele bucatshalwe ngokuqinile, kodwa iNkantolo egcwele. Kunalokho, iNkantolo ebanzi ebanzi eqondwe ngokwesilinganiso sesilinganiso sesilinganiso sesilinganiso sombuso we-Borle.[5] [2]

Muva nje, iNkantolo ikhulumele isivikelo sabantu abavela ebumpofwini Bostock v. Clayton County [2020], iphethe ukuthi ubandlululo ngesisekelo sokuthambekela kobulili noma isimo sokuguqula i-transgender luyisivikelo sobulili ngenxa yesihloko sika- VII se-Civil Rights Act ka-19649. Nakuba [FLT] [FLT] yayiyisinqumo se-station [inqulectal ment] kunokuba ibe yisinqumo somthetho, izimpawu zokuhlola isivikelo esifanayo ziyaqhubeka zibonakala ezinkantolo eziphansi.

Ukungalingani Kwezomnotho Nenkantolo

I-Unicial Protection Claus isebenza ekuhlukaniseni okusekelwe engcebweni kuphela emongweni olinganiselwe. Inkantolo iphethe ukuthi izifundazwe azikwazi ukumelana nokungena ezinkantolo ezisekelwe ekudlulisweni kwecala, njengaku- Griffin v. Illinois[ [1966]], futhi ngeke zikwazi ukuphika izinzuzo zezenhlalakahle ngaphandle kokuzivikela ngokwaneleyo. Nokho, iNkakhulukazi iye yamelana nombono wokuthi ukulingana kwezomnotho kuphela kuphula umthetho wezentengo. [[FLT.FLT:2] [ult:] ISAn Antonio Independent School School School School. "[FLT][FLD][3] [17] [17]), futhi isekela isimiso sesikole esisekelwe ezinkongosini sendawo sendawo, ilahla iphuzu eliphansi lemfundo engaphansi kwezentengo yomthetho yezemfundo.

Ukulwela Ukulingana Okuqhubekayo

Naphezu kwezinqumo zokuguqula eminyakeni engamashumi ayisikhombisa edlule, umzabalazo wokulingana uyaqhubeka phakathi kwezikhawu eziningi. Ukufuna amalungelo kuye kwaba ngaphansi kokucindezela okusha ngemva kwezifunda zase- Shelby County v. Hoker[ [20203], okwaqeda ukuhlanganisa inqubo ye-Voting Rights Act ka-1965. Amazwe aye amisa imithetho yokuvota, i-gerrymerder, futhi akhipha imidwebo encike kakhulu ngezindlela ezithinta imiphakathi emincane kakhulu. Inqulu yezentengi edla ngokwandayo iye yaveza ukungaqiniseki mayelana nezindlela zomkhakha-mkhakha-mkhakha-kha.

Ukwahlulela ngokulunga kuseyinkinga ecindezelayo. Ukuboshwa kwezixuku kuye kwaba nethonya elibhubhisayo emiphakathini yaseMelika naseHispanic, futhi iNkantolo iye yakhuluma ngezindaba ezisukela ekukhetheni ubandlululo lobuhlanga ekukhetheni abahluleli kuya ekusetshenzisweni kwezinhlanga embuthweni wezomthetho. Ukuhlukana kohlanga, ubumpofu, nesimiso sokwahlulela sobugebengu kuye kwaba umnyombo wamalungelo omphakathi anamuhla futhi kunikeza imibuzo engaxazululeki ngencazelo yokulingana ngaphansi komthetho.

Isinqumo seNkantolo siyaqhubeka siveza ukuthatha i-ligita. Isinqumo se-Court seze-Fair Adgicts v. Harvard [2023] sayiqeda ngokuphumelelayo inqubo yokwenqabela izinhlanga emfundweni ephakeme, ifuna izinhlangano ziphishekele izinhlobonhlobo zezindlela zobuhlanga. Lesinqumo siye sabangela ukuphindaphindeka kwemikhuba yokuvuma nempikiswano entsha mayelana nendlela yokuthola ngayo ithuba lokufunda elilinganayo emphakathini ophawulwe yizinhlanga namanani aqhubekayo ezomnotho.

Ukuqonda Ukulingana Ekilasini

Kubafundisi abafundisa lezi zihloko, izindlela eziningana zingasiza abafundi ukuba bahileleke ebunkingeni bokulingana kwemithetho. Okokuqala, kubalulekile ukugcizelela ukuthi incazelo yokulingana ishintshe kakhulu emlandweni waseMelika nokuthi incazelo yomthetho - sisekelo iqala ngokusabela ezinhlanganweni zezenhlalo futhi ishintshe izindinganiso zezenhlalo. Okwesibili, abafundi kufanele baqonde ukuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme ayisebenzi endaweni ewubala; izinqumo zayo zibonisa futhi zithonya izenzakalo zezombangazwe nezesiko. Owesithathu, ukuhlaziywa kwecala kufanele kuhlanganise ukunakekela ngokucophelela emaqini ayiqiniso, izimpikiswano ezingokomthetho ezinhlangothini zombili, nokucabanga kwemibono eminingi nephikisanayo.

Imibono eqhathaniswa ingacebisa futhi ingxoxo yasekilasini. Ezinye imibuso eminingi yentando yeningi engokomthetho-mthetho, kuhlanganise neCanada, iNingizimu Afrika, neJalimane, iye yamukela amalungiselelo okulingana emithethweni yayo yangemva kweMpi Yezwe II edlula i-United States ngezindlela ezithile. Ukuhlola indlela ezinye izinkantolo eziye zabhekana ngayo nezimpikiswano zobandlululo, izenzo zokuvuma, futhi ukulingana komshado kungakhanyisa izici ezihlukanisayo zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika kanye nezinqumo ezisezingeni lethu elingokomthetho.

Isiphetho

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yafeza indima ebalulekile ekuchazeni nasekuvikeleni isiqinisekiso sokulingana ngaphansi koMthetho-sisekelo. Kusukela Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [ ukuya ku- ku-[FLT:]Obergefell v. Isinqumo somthetho wezwe [, siye sandisa izinga lesivikelo esilinganayo futhi saqinisekisa isithunzi samaqembu akhishwa esabelweni esigcweleyo. Kodwa icebo lokulingana kwe-jurisprunency alizange libe yi-ronary, futhi izinselele ezinkulu zikhona. INkanto ngokwayo i-inqulumo ishintshile ekuhlelweni nasefilimini, ukuvota, uvuma, nokucwa kwenkathi yesikhathi esisekelwe ekuhlolweni kwenhlangothi oluphelele.

Ukuqonda lamacala kanye nomongo wawo womlando kubalulekile ukuze ube isakhamuzi esinolwazi. Izimiso zokulingana nobulungisa ezisekela ukubusa ngentando yeningi kwaseMelika azikona ukuzibulala; zidinga ukuthembisana okuqhubekayo, ukuqapha, nokuqapha. Njengoba othisha nabafundi behlola lezi zinqumo ezingokomlando, bahlanganyela ekuchazeni okude komthetho-sisekelo futhi baneqhaza ekufezekeni komphakathi olinganayo. Isiqinisekiso sokulingana sihlala siyisithembiso sokuthi isizukulwane ngasinye kumelwe sisebenzele ekufezekeni.