Ukuqonda indlela amandla kahulumeni asakazwa ngayo kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela izimiso zezombangazwe ezisebenza ngayo nendlela ezithinta ngayo ukuphila kwezakhamuzi. Ukwabiwa kwegunya phakathi kwezinhlangano ezihlukene, amazinga, namagatsha kahulumeni kunquma ukusebenza kahle, ukungalungi, nokuzinza kokubusa. Lesiqondiso sinikeza indlela ebanzi yokuhamba ngemiqondo eyisihluthulelo, imifanekiso, nezinselele ezihlobene nokusakazwa kwamandla kahulumeni, kunikeza noma ubani ofuna ukuqonda izimiso ezilawulayo nomthetho.

Kuyini Ukusakazwa Kwamandla Kahulumeni?

Ukwabiwa kukahulumeni kubhekisela endleleni igunya nemithwalo yemfanelo enikezwa ngayo phakathi kwamagatsha, amazinga, nabadlali phakathi kwesimiso sezombangazwe. Iphendula imibuzo eyisisekelo: Ubani owenza izinqumo? Ubani ozenzayo? Ubani ozichazayo? Izithakazelo ezincintisanayo? Indlela yokusakaza amandla ingaba i-screen (phakathi kohulumeni abaphakathi nohulumeni abaphakathi kwesifunda) noma eqonde (phakathi kwemithetho, isikhulu, nesahlulelo). Ukweba okulinganiselwe kuvimbela noma yimuphi umuntu ukuba athole igunya elingavinjelwe, okuyisisekelo sokulandisa kwentando yeningi.

Isisekelo esicatshangelwayo sokusakaza amandla namuhla sidonsa kakhulu kungqondongqondo enjenge-Baron de Montesquieu, owaphikisana uMoya woMthetho ohlukanisa umsebenzi kahulumeni ube ngamagatsha ahlukene uvikela inkululeko. UJames Madison kamuva wakhiwa kulokhu kuFederalist Papers, ikakhulukazi Federalist No. 51, okuchaza indlela “umbuso okumelwe wenziwe ngayo ukulwa nokuvelela.” Lemiqondo ithonyele u-U.S.Criconstitution futhi iye yazinziwa embululweni yomhlaba wonke.

Izinhlobo Zokwabiwa Kwamandla Kahulumeni

Izimiso zezombangazwe ngokuvamile ziwela ezinhlabeni ezintathu eziyinhloko zokusakaza amandla amile: i-unicariary, uhulumeni, ne-confederal. Isibonelo ngasinye sinezici ezihlukile, izinzuzo, kanye nokuthutha.

Uhlelo oluhlanganisayo

Kuyisimiso sobunye, wonke amandla obukhosi ahlala kuhulumeni owodwa ophakathi. Uhulumeni wesifunda noma wendawo ukhona kodwa uthola igunya lawo enkabeni futhi ungahlelwa kabusha noma uqedwe yiwo.

Izilinganiso zezimiso zobunye zihlanganisa ukuphatha kalula, ukwenza izinqumo ngokushesha eziphuthumayo, nezindinganiso zesizwe eziguquguqukayo. Izindawo ezibonisa i-Disdad[ zihlanganisa ukungasabeli kokuhlukahluka kwezindawo, okungakho ukukhomba uphostolishoshoshoshosho, kanye nokulawula okulinganiselwe kwendawo. Ngokwesibonelo, isimiso saseFrance esisezingeni eliphezulu kakhulu siye sasusa kancane kancane emazweni kusukela kuma 1980, kodwa uhulumeni ophakathi usenalo igunya lokugcina.

Isimiso Sosizo

Isimiso sikahulumeni sihlukanisa amandla phakathi kukahulumeni ophakathi (wezwe) nohulumeni bezifunda eziningi (izifundazwe, izifunda-zwe, i-canton). Zombili lezi zigaba zinezindawo zegunya ezichazwe ngokwemithetho-mthetho ezingashintshwanga muntu ngesinye. Lesisibonelo siklanyelwe ukulinganisela ubunye besizwe nezezwe. I-United States, i-Indiya, iCanada, ne-Australia ziyizibonelo ezivelele.

UFederalism uvumela ukuba kwenziwe ukuhlola kwezimiso, futhi ngokuvamile kubizwa ngokuthi “imisebenzi yentando yeningi”"""'lapho izifundazwe zingahlola khona izindlela ezihlukahlukene ezinjengokuguqula kwezempilo noma imithetho yendawo ezungezile. Ivikela futhi izinkolo ezincane ezingokwesiko nezilimi ngokuzinika inkululeko ezindabeni zendawo. Nokho, izimiso zikahulumeni zingabhekana nezinkinga zokubambisana, ukuphindaphindeka kwezinkonzo, kanye nokuqina kwezombangazwe uma amazinga kahulumeni engavumelani. Isimiso sase-U.S., kanye nobukhosi bayo obumbaxababili, siye saholela ezimpikiswaneni eziqhubekayo ngamalungelo ezwe ahlangene negunya likahulumeni, kusukela emalungelweni omphakathi kuya ekutholeni insangu engokomthetho.

Ukuhlanganisa

Kuhlangene, amazwe azimele noma izindawo aphathisa amagunya alinganiselwe egunyeni elisemqoka elinamandla kodwa egcina ubukhosi obuningi. Uhulumeni ophethe uvame ukusingatha ukukhathazeka okuvamile njengokuzivikela noma ubuhlobo bakwamanye amazwe, kodwa amazwe angamalungu ngokuvamile agcina ilungelo lokuzinqumela noma alibuyiseli ngokuphelele. Izinqumo ezingokomlando zihlanganisa i-United States ngaphansi kweZiphakamiso ze-Confederation (1781-1789) kanye ne-Swisss Confederacy ngaphambi konyaka ka-1848. Isibonelo sanamuhla esixekethile yi-European Union, ebonakalisa izici ezihlanganisa izinqumo ezihlangene ze-Rhoverselm nomthetho ongaphandle we-opt ezihlangane.

Izinga lokuhlanganisa izinqumo zihlanganisa ukuzinqumela okukhulu kwezifunda ezingamalungu kanye nokuvumelana nezimo ukusingatha izifiso ezihlukahlukene. Izindawo ezibonisa impumelelo zihlanganisa ubuthakathaka ezinyathelweni, ubunzima ekuxazululeni izingxabano, kanye nokungantengantengi, njengoba kuboniwe lapho izihloko zeConfedera ziwohloka ngaphansi kokucindezela kwezomnotho nokulondeka.

Amagatsha Kahulumeni: Ukusakaza Amandla Athe Njó

Ukusakazwa okuthe tyaba kwahlukanisa amandla kahulumeni phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu: isikhulu, isikhulu, isikhulu, nokwahlulela. Lokhu kuhlukana, ngokuvamile okuhlangene kumthetho-sisekelo, kwakha isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela ukuze kuvinjelwe noma iliphi igatsha ekubuseni.

Igatsha Eliphethe

Igatsha eliphethe linomthwalo wemfanelo wokumisa nokumisa imithetho, ukuqondisa imisebenzi kahulumeni wansuku zonke, ukuqhuba isimiso sakwelinye izwe, nokuyala amabutho. Livame ukuqondiswa umongameli (isimiso sangaphambi) noma undunankulu (isimiso sokulawula). Imibuso yomphathi iyahlukahluka; ezimisweni zomongameli umongameli uzimele kumthetho wendlu yomthetho, kanti ezimisweni zephalamende ungqongqo uthathwa kumthetho wendlu yendlu yendlu yomthetho futhi angasuswa ngevoti.

Izibonelo zezwe langempela: umongameli wase-U.S. angakhipha umthetho kodwa angakwazi ukuncishisela i-Congress; uma kungafani, undunankulu waseBrithani angabiza ukhetho futhi abekelwe ithemba kumavoti. Igatsha eliphethe lihlanganisa nezinhlangano eziqondisayo ezikhipha imithetho ngegunya lomthetho, ziphakamisa imibuzo ebalulekile mayelana nezithunywa nabaphathi.

Igatsha Elingokomthetho

Igatsha lemithetho limisa imithetho, lihlela izimali, futhi linikeza abavoti abameleli. Ama-Legislature angawakho ama-uncameral (igumbi elilodwa) noma ama-bimameral (amagumbi amabili). I-Biadadralism, njengase-R. Congress (Indlu Nendlu) noma iPhalamende le-UK (i-Commons and Lords), inikeza izinhlolo: amagumbi ahlukene amelela ama-contitue (i-continetics) ahlukene futhi kumelwe avume ngaphambi kokuba umthetho umthetho umthetho ungene.

Imithetho futhi iqondisa umphathi ngokuzwa, ngokuhlola, nangokulawula. Lo msebenzi uye waba obaluleke kakhulu njengoba amandla alawulayo ekhula emazweni amaningi. Nokho, izishaya-mthetho zingahoxiswa i-coffidesboll noma ziphathwe yizithakazelo ezikhethekile, zinciphisa ukuphumelela kwazo njenge-cheke.

Igatsha Lokwahlulela

Igatsha lokwahlulela lichaza imithetho, lixazulule izingxabano, futhi liqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho nezenzo zokuphatha zivumelana nomthetho-sisekelo. Izinkantolo ezizimele zibalulekile ekuvikeleni amalungelo abantu futhi zisekele ukubusa komthetho. Amazwe amaningi agunyaza inkantolo yawo ephakeme kakhulu (isibonelo, iNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S., iNkantolo ye-Federal Constitution) ukuba ilungise ukucubungula kwemithetho yezomthetho-jwayezi."ukuthi ukushaya imithetho ephula umthetho womthetho-mthetho-mthetho.

Ukuzimela kokwahlulela kuyisivikelo esibucayi. Ukusongela ukuzimela kokwahlulela, njengokumelana nenkantolo noma ukucindezela kwezombangazwe, kululaza ukulinganisela kwamandla. Izibonelo ezifana nezinguquko zokwahlulela zasePoland (2015-2023) zibonisa indlela uhulumeni anganciphisa ngayo ukulandisa okuqondile ngokuhlasela ijaji.

Ukuhlukana Kwamandla Nokulinganisela

Nakuba amagatsha amathathu enemisebenzi ehlukile, asebenza ngesimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela.

  • Umongameli (ongashushisi) angakhipha umthetho okhishwa yiSishaya - mthetho (i - celesmentia).
  • ISishaya - mthetho singalikhipha iqophelo elinama - votre amabili, siqinisekise ukumiswa kwabaqondisi, futhi sigunyaze umongameli.
  • Ijaji lingamemezela imithetho noma izenzo zezikhulu ezingekho emthethweni.
  • Umongameli umisa amajaji, kodwa iSigele siyawaqinisekisa; iSishaya - mthetho singashintsha ubukhulu nokubusa kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni.

Lokhu kuqondisana kuvimbela noma iliphi igatsha ekuqongeleleni amandla amakhulu kakhulu. Ezimisweni zephalamende, ukuhlanganiswa kwamandla aphetheyo nawamageqe (ukubulala kuvela kumthetho womthetho) kusho ukuhlola okuncike kakhulu ejajini, endlini ephezulu, nasemihlanganweni ephakeme yomthetho-sisekelo. Ukuqonda lokhu kungafani kuyisihluthulelo ekuhloleni impilo yentando yeningi yezwe.

Ukubaluleka Kokwaba Amandla

Ukuhlukaniswa okufanele kwamandla kahulumeni akuyona nje into ecatshangelwayo, kodwa kunemiphumela engokoqobo yenkululeko, ukuzinza nokubusa okuphumelelayo.

  • Ukusungula ubushiqela: Njengoba uMadison abhala, “Ukunqwabelana kwawo wonke amandla, ukumiswa kwemithetho, ukuphatha, nokulawula, ezandleni ezifanayo... kungachazwa ngokufanele incazelo yayo kanye yobushiqela.”
  • Izimiso zeFederal ezivikelayo: zivumela amaqembu amancane ukuba alondoloze ukuzibusa kwezesiko noma kwezendawo, kunciphise ingozi yokucindezelwa kwezikhulu.
  • [ impumelelo engabonakali: Ohulumeni bendawo ezimisweni ezihloniphekile bangavumelanisa izimiso nezimo zendawo, ngokuvamile ngokuphumelelayo kunegunya elisekujuleni.
  • Ukuthatha igalelo: amazinga kahulumeni amaningi anikeza izakhamuzi amaphuzu amaningi okungena ukuze zingene kwezombangazwe, kusukela emikhandlwini yendawo kuya kumaqembu esizwe.
  • Ukulandisa:[ Lapho amandla ehlukene, igatsha ngalinye lingahlola amanye, okwenza ukusetshenziswa kabi kube nzima ukufihla.

Izinselele Ekusakazweni Kwamandla Kahulumeni

Ngisho nezindlela ezihlelwe kahle zokusakaza zibhekene nezinselele eziphikelelayo ezidinga ukuqapha njalo.

Ukugxilisa Amandla

Naphezu kokuhlukana okungokomthetho, amandla angadlulela egatsheni elilodwa. Emazweni amaningi, izikhulu ziye zandisa igunya lazo ngemibuso ephuthumayo, izikhundla zezikhulu, noma izikhulu eziphethe. Ukuwohloka kokuqondisa kwemithetho nokuzimela kokwahlulela ngokuvamile kubonisa ukuphambuka kwentando yeningi. Izibonelo zihlanganisa iTurkey ne Hungary, lapho ushintsho olungokomthetho lusezikhundleni zesikhulu.

Ukonakala Kwezombangazwe

Inkohlakalo ihlanekezela ukwabiwa kwamandla ngokuvumela abantu abacebile noma amaqembu anamandla ukuba adlulise umthetho ongokomthetho. Ilulaza umthetho, inciphisa ukwethembana, futhi imelela abameleli. Amanxusa alwa nokonakala kanye namajaji azimele abalulekile, kodwa wona ngokwawo angonakaliswa. I-World Justice Project Idential of Law Index[ njalo] ilandela ngendlela ukonakala okuthinta ngayo izibalo nezilinganiso emhlabeni wonke (i-internation).

Ukungameleli Okwanele

Uma izishaya-mthetho zingabonisi ukuhlukahluka kwenani labantu (ngabobulili obubodwa, ubuzwe, isigaba, isigaba), imithetho ingayishaya indiva imiphakathi encishisiwe. Izindaba zohlelo njenge gerrymander, ukuthatha noma ukuthatha noma yikuphi ukukhetha, noma ukumelela okukhulu kakhulu kungayiveza lenkinga. Ngisho nasezimisweni zikahulumeni, izifunda ezicebile noma amaqembu angathatha ithonya elingenakulinganiswa.

Isondo Elingenayo Imoto Nokungasebenzi Kahle Kwalo

Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso okwedlulele kungaholela ekukhubazekeni kwemithetho, ikakhulukazi kohulumeni abahlukene. I-U.S. iye yabhekana nokuvinjelwa kaningi kukahulumeni lapho uMkhandlu nomongameli behluleka ukuvumelana ngezimiso zokuhlela.

Ukuzivumelanisa Nokubambisana

Amandla okuncishisela angenza ukusabela kungcono kodwa futhi adala ukuhluleka kokusebenza kwezimiso zokusebenza. Ngokwesibonelo, umthetho wendawo ezungezile, uyahlupheka lapho indawo ngayinye ibeka izindinganiso zayo ngaphandle kokukhuluma ngokungcola okuphakathi. Umqedazwe we-COVID-19 waqokomisa indlela izimiso zikahulumeni (njenge-U.S. kanye ne-Indiya) ezilwisana ngayo nezinyathelo eziguquguqukayo zempilo yomphakathi, kuyilapho izimiso ze-unitary (njenge-New Zealand) zingathatha isinyathelo ngokushesha.

Ukuthambekela Kwanamuhla Ekusakazeni Amandla

Ohulumeni bayaqhubeka beguqula amandla abo ngenxa yokuhwebelana kwembulunga yonke, ezobuchwepheshe, nezimfuneko zezenhlalo.

Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo Ne - Autonomy Yesifunda

Izifunda eziningi ze-unicariary zinemibuso encishisiwe ezindaweni emashumini eminyaka amuva. I-United Kingdom iye yasusa amaphalamende e-Scotland, eWales, nase-Northern Ireland; imiphakathi yaseSpain ezimeleyo inemithetho ephawulekayo; iFrance yakha izifunda nemikhandlu ekhethiwe. Inguquko ngokuvamile ihlose ukulawula izinhlangano zobuzwe noma ukuthuthukisa ukubusa kwendawo ngaphandle kombuso wezwe.

Ukuthuthwa Kwezizwe Zonke

I-European Union imelela ungqimba olusha lokubusa ngaphezu kwezwe elisezweni. Ilungu limisa ukubusa ezindaweni ezinjengezentengiselwano, umthetho wokuncintisana, namalungelo abantu, ukwakha isimiso esixubile esingavumelaniyo noma esinguhulumeni. Inkantolo ye-EU yobulungisa ingayisusa imithetho yesizwe, kuyilapho amazwe angamalungu elawula intela nezimiso zamazwe angaphandle. Lendlela yokulawula imingcele ikhubaza izinhlangano zesizwe kodwa ibonisa indlela ukuhlukana kwamandla okungavumelana ngayo nezindaba ezibhekene nenguquko yesimo sezulu nemithetho yamanani.

Ukubusa Kwamanani Nezimiso Ezincishisiwe

Ubuchwepheshe buyinselele kumandla angokwesiko. Izindawo zezentengiselwano zezentengiselwano zingandisa amazwi athile futhi zilulaze izinhlangano ezingokomthetho. I-jtchain ne-odentiral ihlela izinhlangano ezizimele ezintsha zokubusa ngaphandle kwegunya elikhulu. Phakathi naleso sikhathi, ohulumeni balwa nokuqondisa ubuchwepheshe obukhulu .A amandla aqondeneyo phakathi kokulwa kwemithetho ye-gnostic, isikhulu, namagatsha okwahlulela, kanye nemibuzo emile yezinga likahulumeni (lonke, lohlanga, isibalo sesizwe) kufanele lilawule i-data ne-IA. Ngokwesibonelo, i-General Data Device Regtivement (GPR) i-EU'S ye-EU'S provicement Regatection (GR) imisa isilinganiso sembulunga yonke, kodwa amagatsha ayo athembele kumalungu ombuso.

Ukuhlaziya Okuqhathanisayo Kwezibonelo Zokwaba Amandla

Amazwe ahlukahlukene ahlanganisa ukuhlukahluka okunganqamuki nokunganqamuki ngezindlela ezihlukile.

  • United States: Ukuhlukana okuqonde kakhulu (isimiso sangaphambili, i-bidagel Congress, i-jameral jardiary) kanye ne-constiaism enamandla (ubukhosi obuvamile). Imikhuba yamuva ibonisa amandla aphezulu akhulayo kanye nokuhlukana kwama-developix.
  • Kingdom: Iphakethe exwelile (isikhulu esiphetheyo, i House of Commons) nge-aymmetal devolution (imibuso emikhulu yeScotland, embalwa kakhulu ezindaweni zesiNgisi).
  • IsiJamani: Isimiso seFederal ngokubambisana okuqinile okusuka phezulu (umbuso ohlanganisa i-constinist) nesimiso sepalamende esinenkantolo eqinile yomthetho-sisekelo. Amandla asakazwa ngokumelelwa ngokulingana nangohulumeni abahlangene.
  • Fransa: Isimiso soManyano nesikhulu esinamandla (isiphathisi) kanye nokuphathwa okuphakathi. Izinguquko zamuva zoguqulo azizange zikushintshe ngokuyisisekelo ukubusa kwalesikhungo.

Isimiso sezohwebo ngasinye sivikela inkululeko kodwa singamiswa ngokungemthetho; isimiso se - UK siyasebenza kodwa siyingozi ekulawuleni iziphathimandla; ukubambisana kwemibuso yaseJalimane kwenza ukuba kukwazi ukuzinza kodwa kungase kube nonwabu; ukuma kweFrance kwenza ukuba kuthathe isinyathelo ngokushesha kodwa kubeke imingcele yokuhlanganyela endaweni.

Isiphetho

Ukwabiwa kwamandla kahulumeni yisimiso sokuhlela indlela okunquma ngayo ukuthi igunya lezombangazwe lisetshenziswa ngayo, lihlolwe, futhi lincintiswane ngayo. Ngokuqonda imifanekiso ehlukene − i-ogante, i-confederal(ne) negatsha likahulumeni, izakhamuzi zingahlola kangcono ukusebenza nempilo yesimiso sazo siqu sezombangazwe. Okubaluleke ngokufanayo izinselele eziqhubekayo: ukubekwa amandla, inkohlakalo, ukubekwa igebe, nokudingeka kolwazi lwezimo ezisezingeni elisha kanye nesidingo sokuzivumelanisa nembulunga yonke. Ukuqaphela lamandla kunika amandla abantu ukuba basekele ukulinganisela, ukubusa okunesibopho. Ukuqhubeka kokufunda, [[FLT:]] Izinselele eziqhubekayo zesiqondiso sombuso [FLT] [FLD:1] kanye nezindleko ze-'inani eliyinkimbinkimbi [FOFF] kunakho ukunikezwa kwemininingwane engcono yenqubo yombuso.