Ubuhlobo phakathi kwemithetho kahulumeni nemithwalo yemfanelo kahulumeni buyisici esichazayo sokubusa kwaseMelika, esiguqula yonke into kusukela emalungelweni omphakathi kuya enkambisweni yendawo ezungezile. Kubafundisi nabafundi bomlando nesayensi yezombangazwe, beqonda indlela imithetho kahulumeni ephoqelela ngayo isenzo sombuso (*futhi ngezinye izikhathi ibangela ukumelana nokumelana nokusebenza okusebenzayo kwe-sobuzwe). Lesi sihloko sindisa izimpawu eziyinhloko, sihlola ukungezwani komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo nezombangazwe okuhilelekile, futhi sihlola ukuziphendukela kwalemithetho ephawulekayo.

Ukuqonda Uhulumeni: Umsebenzi Oyisisekelo Wokuhlanganyela Igunya

I-Federalism ihlukanisa igunya lokubusa phakathi kwezifundazwe eziyinhloko zikahulumeni wesizwe nezindawo. Umthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. unikeza uhulumeni amandla abalayo − njengokuqondisa kwezentengiselwano zamazwe, ukusungula imali, nokumisa impi (ngoba igcina wonke amanye amagunya ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi). Nokho, lengxenye ayimi ndawonye. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, umthetho kahulumeni uye wahlanganisa kakhulu izifunda zezwe ezingokwesiko, wadala imidlalo eyinkimbinkimbi nevame ukuxabana.

I-constative American yanamuhla ivame ukuchazwa ngokuthi "umthetho wobuzwe," lapho ohulumeni besizwe nohulumeni besebenza ngokubambisana ekuxazululeni izinkinga. Lomfanekiso wavela kuma-1930 ngezinhlelo ze-New Deal futhi waqiniswa phakathi nenkathi ka-1960 Great Society. Kuleli lungiselelo, uhulumeni kazwelonke usebenzisa izimali ezinemibandela enika imali enikeza izimali(8] imali enikezwa ngesimo sokuthi ithatha imithetho ethile eqondile . "Igunya lesikhwama" liye laba yithuluzi eliyinhloko lokufinyelela ezindaweni ezingokwemfundo, ukunakekelwa kwempilo, nokuhamba. Ngalesosikhathi, izibalo zigcina i-dendecrensi ephawulekayo, iholela ekubeni izingxoxo eziqhubekayo eziphonswe, ukucukuthwa, nokulinganiswa okufanelekile kwamandla.

Izibonelo Eziyinhloko Zemithetho Yomphakathi Ezithinta Imithwalo Yemfanelo Kahulumeni

Imithetho elandelayo ibonisa ubukhulu nokujula kwethonya likahulumeni ekubusweni kukahulumeni. Ngamunye ubonisa inqubo ehlukile(ukube inqatshelwa ngokuqondile, ukuxhaswa kwezimali okunemibandela, noma ukubekwa kwezinga elivamile) uhulumeni kahulumeni ophethe asebenzise ukumisa ukubusa.

Umthetho Ka - 1964 Wamalungelo Abantu

I-Civil Rights Act ka-1946 iwumthetho waseMelika owenqatshelwayo. Yavala ubandlululo olusekelwe ngokohlanga, ibala, inkolo, ubulili, noma imvelaphi yesizwe ezindaweni zomphakathi, umsebenzi, nezinhlelo ezixhaswa nguhulumeni. Ngaphambi kokuba ludlule, amazwe amaningi, ikakhulukazi eNingizimu, agcina ukuqashelwa okungokomthetho. I-Act yashintsha ngokuphawulekayo imithwalo yemfanelo kahulumeni ngezindlela eziningana:

  • Izindawo zomphakathi: amazwe kwadingeka ukuba aphoqelele ukungahlukumezeki emahhotela, ezindaweni zokudlela, emahholo, nakwezinye izindawo zomphakathi. Izikhungo zangasese ezazingahlangani nezincane zazingeke zikwazi ukwenza kanjalo ngokomthetho.
  • [ I-Federal Funding Marality: Isihloko VI soMthetho sinqabela ukucwaswa kunoma yiluphi uhlelo oluthola usizo lwezezimali lukahulumeni. Amazwe aphula lelilungiselelo afaka engozini ukulahlekelwa izigidi zezigidi zamaRandi kahulumeni ezikoleni, izibhedlela, imigwaqo emikhulu, nangaphezulu. Lokhu kwanika uhulumeni wezwe ithulusi elinamandla lokuphoqelela ukuthobela.
  • [ Inqubo ye-Employment Practices:[ Isihloko VII sasungula i-Unime Accomplication Opportuent Commission (EOC) futhi sinika izisebenzi ilungelo lokumangalela ukucwaswa. Izinhlangano zikahulumeni kwadingeka zilinganisele imithetho yazo yokuqasha neyomsebenzi nezindinganiso zikahulumeni.

Naphezu kokuphikisa okusheshayo okuvela kubabusi abathile bombuso nezishaya - mthetho, ukugcinwa kwale-mthetho kwale-Act (ukubekwa kwemithetho) kuphazanyiswa yizimemezelo zenkantolo nombono womphakathi − cishe ukubuswa kabusha kwezwe. i-Civil Rights Act ilokhu iyisibonelo esivelele sendlela umthetho kahulumeni ongaphoqelela ngayo ukuba amazwe amukele isivikelo esifanayo, ngisho nalapho ephikisana nokukhetha kwendawo.

Isinyathelo Somoya Ohlanzekile

I-Clean Air Act (CAA), eyadluliswa okokuqala ngo-1963 futhi yalungiswa kakhulu ngo-1970 nango-1990, imisa i-National Ambentient Sight Seaty Direct (NAAQS) ukuze ifake izinto ezingcolisa impilo yomphakathi nendawo ezungezile. Ngaphansi kwalo mthetho, uhulumeni umisa izindinganiso, kodwa izifunda zinesibopho esiyinhloko sokusetshenziswa. Imiphumela ye-Act ethinta imithwalo yemfanelo kahulumeni ihlanganisa:

  • Isimo sama-IP Programme (ZIZIP): Zonke izimo kumele zakhe i-SIP imininingwane ye-SIP eveza futhi igcine i-NAAQS phakathi kwemingcele yayo. Lamacebo adinga ukuqashelwa okukhulu, ukuvumela, nokugcinwa kwezinhlelo. Uma uhulumeni ehluleka ukunikeza i-IP eyanele, i-Evironmental Protection Agency (EPA) ingaphoqa icebo likahulumeni futhi igodle izimali zemigwaqo emikhulu.
  • Indawo etholakele:[ Amazwe anezindawo ezidlula imingcele yokungcola kumelwe athathe izinyathelo ezengeziwe njengokungathi imishini eqinile yokukhipha imoto, izinhlelo zokuhlola izimoto, kanye nokuhlela izinto zokuhamba. Ukuhluleka kuholela ekuvumeni ukujeziswa, kuhlanganise nokulahlekelwa yinkokhelo kahulumeni.
  • Ukukhulula nokuzimela: [isikhathi i-CAA imisa izindinganiso ezilinganiselwe zesizwe, imibuso ingathatha imithetho eqinile. Ngokwesibonelo, iCalifornia ithole umxhakathisi ukuze isebenzise izindinganiso zayo zokukhipha imoto, ezinye izifunda ezingakhetha ukuzilandela. Lendlela yokubambisana ebekelwe indawo eqinile ibeka isithunzi sombuso wezwe nobudlelwane.

I-Ceac Air Act ibonisa indlela umthetho omisiwe kahulumeni ongashintsha ngayo izakhiwo zikahulumeni ngokuyisisekelo, idinga ukuba amazwe afake imali ezinhlanganweni ezintsha, izimiso zokwaziswa, kanye nezinqubo zokugcinwa kwezimiso. Impikiswano eqhubekayo ngoshintsho lwezinqubo zesimo sezulu, kuhlanganise ne-Cec Power Plan ne-EPA, iyaqhubeka ihlola lokhu kulinganisela.

Imithwalo Yemfanelo Yezempilo KaMedicaid NoMbuso

Idalwe ngo-1965 ngaphansi komthetho we-Social Security Act, iMedicaid iyisimiso sezempilo esihlangene esinikeza abantu abathola imali ephansi, imikhaya, izingane, abesifazane abakhulelweyo, abantu abadala abakhubazekile. Uhulumeni ubeka izimfuneko ezibanzi zokufuna ukuvuleka kwemali futhi ugunyaze izinkonzo ezithile, kodwa uhulumeni unikeza uhlelo futhi uvumelanisa izimo ekuklameni amapulani abo siqu. Izici eziyinhloko zemiphumela kahulumeni zihlanganisa:

  • Ukufana kweNgxowa-mali: uhulumeni uhlanganisa izindleko zikahulumeni kuMedicaid ngesilinganiso esaziwa ngokuthi iFederal Medical Active (FMAP), ehluka ngokwezwe (kusukela ku 50% kuya ku-8% kweminye imiphakathi enwetshiwe). Lesisisusa sezimali sikhuthaza ukuhlanganyela kuhulumeni kodwa futhi sikhuthaza izimali ezihlelwa uhulumeni ezinguqulweni zesimiso sikahulumeni.
  • [[FLT: 0] Izimfuneko ezingenakuguqulwa: Amazwe kumelwe avumelane namazinga amancane kahulumeni okungangeni. Ngokwesibonelo, u-Affordhable Care Act (ACA) ka-2010 wanwetshwa ku-Medicaid kubo bonke abadala abaholayo abathola imali efinyelela ku-88% yezinga lobumpofu eliphakathi. Nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme i-National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius[[FLT] (202]) yenza lokhu kwanda kube ngokomthetho, abaningi baye bakhetha ukwandisa, bashintsha imithwalo yabo yemfanelo yempilo.
  • I-Program Flexibility edlula eWaivers: Amazwe angacela iziphakamiso ezivela eCentre for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) ukuze azame ezinye izimo zokuhambisa, njengezimfuneko zomsebenzi noma usizo olucingisiwe. Laba baxhaphazi bavumela ukusungulwa kwezwe kodwa bahlale bengaphansi kokuvunyelwa nokwengamele kukahulumeni.

Medicaid ubonisa indlela i-dollar kahulumeni efakwa ngayo izintambo. Uma i-Congress ishintsha isimiso sikahulumeni (ngokwesibonelo), ngokufaka izimali zikahulumeni noma ukushintsha uhlelo lokusetshenziswa kwemali(izindawo) kumelwe ivumelane nezindlela zokuhlela imali, ngezinye izikhathi inqume ezinye izinkonzo noma inyuse izintela. Ukwanda okungahleliwe kwe-ACA kwadala umsebenzi lapho ezinye izifunda zifihla khona abantu abadala abaphansi, kanti ezinye zikhipha ngaphandle okuningi, ziqokomisa ukungezwani okuqhubekayo phakathi kwemigomo kahulumeni nokukhetha kwezwe.

Abantu BaseMelika Abanomthetho Wokukhubazeka (ADA)

Umthetho usayinwe nguMongameli George H.W. Bush ngo-1990, amaMelika anobukhubazeko awunqabela ukuba abantu abakhubazekile kuzo zonke izici zokuphila komphakathi, kuhlanganise nemisebenzi, izikole, ezokuhamba, nezindawo zomphakathi nezomuntu siqu ezivulekele umphakathi. Ithonya le-ADA ngemithwalo yemfanelo yombuso lihlanganisa:

  • Izimfuneko zokuthola: i-Estates kumele iqinisekise ukuthi zonke izakhiwo zomphakathi(ukusuka emagcekeni ukuya emapaki ukuya ezimisweni zokuthutha zomphakathi(ukutholakala kubantu abakhubazekile. Lokhu kudinga ukulungisa ezakhiweni, ezindleleni zomgwaqo, izimpawu, kanye nezimpawu.
  • [ Isivikelo se-Employment:[ Umbuso nabaqashi bakahulumeni bendawo kumelwe banikeze izisebenzi ezikhubazekile izindawo zokulala ezifanele ngaphandle kokuba ukwenza kanjalo kubangele ubunzima obungadingekile. Lokhu kuhlanganisa nokuqasha, ukukhushuliswa, nezimiso zomsebenzi.
  • Ukuphoqelelwa nokukhohliswa: Abantu bangafaka icala ezinkantolo ngenxa yokungahambisani nezifundazwe. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yanquma ukuthi ukuvikeleka kwamandla ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nanye akubavikeli eziphakamisweni ze-ADA, ukwenza ukuba amazwe afanele ukuphulwa. Ngaphezu kwalokho, uMnyango Wezobulungisa ungavimba ukuxhaswa kwezimali zikahulumeni ezizweni ezingahambisani nezincwadi.

I-ADA iye yaphoqelela amazwe ukuba afake imali eningi ezinjwayezweni zezemisebenzi, ekuqeqesheni, nasekuthobeleni umthetho. Nakuba umthetho uye wathuthukisa kakhulu ukufinyelela, izinselele eziqhubekayo zihlanganisa izindawo eziphelelwe isikhathi ezindaweni zasemaphandleni, izimpikiswano ngokuthi yini ewukuhlelwa "kwendawo yokuhlala enengqondo," kanye nesidingo sezindinganiso ezithuthukisiwe njengoba ubuchwepheshe bushintsha.

Ezinye Izibonelo Eziphawulekayo

Ngaphandle kwalezi zibonelo ezine ezingenhla, eminye imithetho eminingana kahulumeni ithonya ngokuphawulekayo imithwalo yemfanelo kahulumeni:

  • I-Voting Rights Act ka-65: ekuqaleni] izifundazwe ezifunekayo ezinemisuka yobandlululo lobuhlanga ukuze kutholakale "ukucacisa" phambi kokushintsha imithetho yokuvota. Nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme yalulaza uhlelo lwe-authority Shelby County v. Haker [2013], i-Act isayinqabela imiyalo yokuhlukanisa i-discriciotis futhi inikeza igunya likahulumeni ukuba lingene ekuqondiseni kokhetho lombuso.
  • i-Child Behind Act (2001) / Wonke Umfundi Wempumelelo Act (2015):[ Lemithetho yemfundo ihlanganisa izimali zikahulumeni ekutholeni isilinganiso sezindinganiso, ukuhlolwa, nezimiso zokulandisa. Amazwe kumelwe anikeze ukuhlolwa okuvamile, abike imiphumela ehlukene, futhi angene ezikoleni ezinciphisa ukuphumelela okuncane (noma alahlekelwe yisihloko Indizawo.)
  • Umthetho ka-1948 we-National Reast Admica: uhulumeni akamiseli ngokuqondile inkathi yokuphuza kodwa ugodla ingxenye yemali yomgwaqo omkhulu kahulumeni evumela abantu abangaphansi kweminyaka engu-21 ukuba bathenge utshwala. Zonke izifunda-Aregoria ziye zavuma, zakha isimiso esifanayo sombuso ngokucindezela kwezwe.

Lezi zimo zibonisa uhide lwamathuluzi kahulumeni: izigunyazo, izimo zokuxhasa ngemali, ukuhlengwa, nokuphana izipho. Isimo ngasinye sokuziphatha kombuso ngezindlela ezihlukile, ngokuvamile sibhebhethekisa imincintiswano engokomthetho nezombangazwe.

Izinselele Ekulinganiseni Imibuso Yombuso Neyombuso

Ukusebenzelana phakathi kwemithetho kahulumeni nemithwalo yemfanelo kahulumeni akuvamile ukuba kushelele.

Izingxabano Ezingokomthetho Nenkantolo Ephakeme Ilahla Icala

Lapho imithetho kahulumeni nekahulumeni ingqubuzana, iSuprematy Claus yenza umthetho kahulumeni uphumelele, kodwa izinga legunya likahulumeni ngokuvamile aliqinisekile. amacala abonisa imingcele aye achaza:

  • Printz v. United States (1997): INkantolo yashaya amalungiselelo e-Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act adinga umbuso nemithetho yendawo yokuhlola isizinda, ibusa ukuthi uhulumeni wezwe ungakwazi ukuyala izikhulu zikahulumeni ukuba ziqondise izinhlelo zikahulumeni.
  • Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (202): iNkantolo yasekela igunya lomuntu ngamunye le ACA njengentela kodwa yanquma ukuthi uMkhandlu awunakusebenzisa amandla awo okusebenzisa ukuphoqelela amazwe ukuba andise iMedicaid ngokusongela ukukhipha yonke izimali ze-Medicaid. Lesinqumo esiphawulekayo salinganisela "igunya le-A" ne-Implatectiontion.
  • Murphy v. National Collegiate Athletic Association (2017): INkantolo yanquma ukuthi iProfessional and Ammetur Sports Provice Provice Act (PASPA) ingekhona ukubuswa kwemithetho ye-patmenti yombuso ngokubekele ukugunyaza ukubheja imidlalo. Lokhu kwavula umnyango wezikhulu ukuba zivumele ukubheja kwemidlalo yokugembula.

Lamacala abonisa ukuthi uhulumeni kahulumeni awunakumane nje uhlele ukuba kumiswe imithetho noma kuphoqelelwe imithetho kahulumeni.

Ukudamba Okungaphendulwanga

I-Congress ngezikhathi ezithile ifuna izimemezelo ezithile ngaphandle kokunikeza imali egcwele. I-Mandaters Reform Act ka-1995 yayihloselwe ukunqanda lo mkhuba, kodwa iziqondiso eziningi ziyaqhubeka. Izibonelo zihlanganisa izimfuneko ngaphansi koMthetho we-Chrean Water Act ukuze kuqashelwe izinga lamanzi, noma i-ID yangempela imfuneko yezwe yokukhipha amalayisensi okulawula ukulawulwa kwe-intelligations (imizamo) efuna ukuthatha izimvume zokushayela. Lokhu kudala ukuxabana, njengoba kusho ukuthi izibopho zikahulumeni zicindezela izindleko zabo zemali nokulinganisela.

Ukumelana Nezombangazwe Nemizamo Yokulwa

Ezinye izifundazwe zimelana nemithetho kahulumeni egunyaza izisekelo zemibono. Emashumini eminyaka amuva, "idolobha elihlala abantu" imithetho ilinganisela ukubambisana nokugcinwa kwezindawo ezihlala abantu, kanti ukubekwa kwempova ngokomthetho kukahulumeni kuphikisana ngokuqondile nomthetho kahulumeni ngaphansi koMthetho we-Guided Substancess Act. Uhulumeni kahulumeni ukwenqaba ukuphoqelela ukuququlwa ngokuqinile kulezi zindawo, okuphumela ekuncishisweni kwenqubo yokungagunyazi ukugcinwa kwemithetho kahulumeni ezweni elihlukene ngokwezombangazwe.

Izinkinga Zangesikhathi Esidlule EFederal - State Relations

Izimpikiswano eziningana zesimanje zezimiso zigcizelela ukubaluleka okuqhubekayo kwemibuso kahulumeni:

  • Imali ye- Ukuvikela: Izinqumo zikahulumeni ekwandiseni kwe-Medicaid, ukulawulwa kwezimakethe zomshuwalense, kanye ne-prigrag kuyaqhubeka kulolongwa umthetho kahulumeni. Ithuba lokukhetha uhulumeni noma ukwanda kweMedicare liyophinde livivinye ubungako bombuso nokuzimisela.
  • [[FLT: 0] I-Environment: Amazwe anjengeCalifornia aye aqhubekela phambili ngezindinganiso eziqinile zokukhipha intuthu, kuyilapho amanye ebekela imithetho ye-EPA inselele. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ku- west Virginia v. EPA [2022]) isithiya ikhono lenhlangano lokusebenzisa i-Ceaioc Air Act ukumisa izikhonkwane zamandla angaphakathi, ukuqinisa igunya le-mote.
  • Imfundo: i-All Students Foundes Act (ESA) ibuyisela ukulawula okuthile emazweni kodwa idinga izinyathelo zokulandisa. Impikiswano ngezindinganiso zohlelo lwezifundo, ukukhetha isikole, nokusekela inzuzo kuhlala kubekwe phezulu.
  • Impilo ye-Public: Umqedazwe we-COVID-19 [Ubhadane lwe-COVID] waqokomisa ukucindezeleka kwezwe likahulumeni njengoba imibuso isebenzisa iziphakamiso zebhayisekili ezihlukene, izivalo, namasu okusakaza imithi. Uhulumeni wasebenzisa igunya lempilo yomphakathi nezimali ukuze uthonye ukuziphatha kombuso, kodwa uphawula ukuthi izikhulu eziphawulekayo zaqhubeka.
  • Ukuhlanganisa: umthetho we-Federal ululaza umthetho wezwe wokufuduka, kodwa izifundazwe ziye zamisa imithetho ethinta amalayisense omshayeli, izinzuzo zomphakathi, kanye nokubambisana nomthetho nomthetho wokuqinisekisa ukugcinwa. Imingcele iyaqhubeka ivivinywa ezinkantolo.

Lezindaba zibonisa ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa kwemithwalo yemfanelo phakathi kwezikhulu zikahulumeni neWashington akuxazululwa.Esikhundleni salokho, kuphenduka ngomthetho ngamunye omusha, isinqumo senkantolo, nokushintsha kwezombangazwe.

Isiphetho

Ithonya lemithetho kahulumeni emithwalweni kahulumeni likhulu futhi lisebenza njalo. Umthetho wophawu njengomthetho we-Civil Rights Act, i-Celean Air Act, i-Medicaid, kanye ne-Melika enoMthetho wokukhubazeka ngokuyisisekelo ukuguqula lokho amazwe akwenzayo ngokuyisisekelo ngokuqinisekisa ukuthi izindawo zomphakathi zitholakala kanjani ekuqondiseni izinhlelo zemvelo eziyinkimbinkimbi. Lemithetho isebenzisa ingxube yemithetho eqondile, ukusekela imibandela ethile, nokuhlela ukufinyelela imigomo yesizwe, kuyilapho izinkantolo ziqhubeka ziconga imingcele engokomthetho kahulumeni.

Kubafundisi nabafundi, ukuqonda lomdlalo kubaluleke kakhulu. Ukusebenza kobuzwe akuyona imingcele eqinile kodwa ukuxoxisana okunamandla. Imithwalo yemfanelo yoMbuso ayiminyene; bashintshana nenyathelo elisha likahulumeni ngamunye, ukusabela kombuso ngamunye, nencazelo yokwahlulela ngayinye. Ngokuhlola izibonelo eziyinhloko nezinselele eziphakanyiswayo, umuntu uzuza umbono ocacile wendlela ukubusa kwaseMelika okusebenza ngayo ngempela, − ukuhlanganisa ubunye nokuhlukahlukahluka, izinto eziza kuqala zombuso nezokulawula kwendawo, esimisweni esiklanyelwe ukuvumelana.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola umbhalo ogcwele wemithetho eyisihluthulelo eKhongomeni.gov, Isinqumo se-consitution's "[, kanye ne-[FLT] ... SUPMME] iNFIB v. Sebelius's Court of the justicalism yesinqumo sokuhlaziya okujule kakhulu.[[FLT:]]