Ukubheka Ngokujulile Ukuboshelwa: Ukuwachitha Amalungelo Okuhlangana Nokunxusa

Ilungelo labantu lokuhlanganisa ngokuthula nokunxusa uhulumeni ukuba alungise izikhalo akuyona nje inkulumo engokomthetho, kodwa iwumsuka wokuhlanganyela kwentando yeningi. Lenkululeko eyimibili, efakwe eSichibiyelweni Sokuqala, ivumela izakhamuzi ukuba zihlele, zihlukane nezwi, futhi zifune ukulandisa. Kodwa ushintsho lubalulekile ekuqondeni amalungelo amaningi omlando waseMelika, lezi zivikelo ezisetshenziswa kuphela kuhulumeni wombuso. Kwakuyimfundiso yokuhlanganisa, esekelwe eSiphendulweni se-14th, eyaguqula lendawo ngokudlulisa isivikelo sikaBill of Rights emond nohulumeni bendawo. Ukuqonda lokhu kubaluleke kakhulu ekuqondeni indlela amalungelo okuhlangana nokucela okungaqiniswa ngayo, okulinganiselwe, futhi ngokuqhubekayo eMelika yanamuhla.

IBhuloho Elingokomthetho Liyini?

Ukuhlanganiswa kuyimfundiso yomthetho-sisekelo esebenzisa izivikelo zezindawo zokuqala eziyishumi zokulungisa amalungelo, “‘ iBhill of Rights’s +to isho imibuso ngohlelo lwe-Celaste of the Indation. Isigaba sithi akukho mbuso ozothi "uthotho lomuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo engokomthetho." Kusukela ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20, iNkantolo Ephakeme isekela kancane kancane ukuthi inkululeko ethile eBill of Rights iyisisekelo kangangokuba le nqubo yaziwa ngokuthi iyaziwa ngokuthi [[FLT:] inqubo yokukhetha [[FLD:1]], ekhethekile, esetshenziswa yilungelo elilodwa, kunokuba isebenzisa wonke amalungelo e-Bill of Rights.

Ngokwesibonelo, ngaphambi kokuba kungenele, umbuso ungavimbela ukubhikisha kwezombangazwe noma ujezise izakhamuzi ngokusakaza isicelo ngaphandle kokwephula iSichibiyelo Sokuqala, ngoba lokho kulungisa kwamane kwavimbela iSishaya - mthetho. Umqondo wokuhlanganisa lokhu washintsha ngokumemezela ukuthi isiqinisekiso seSichibiyelo seshumi nane senkululeko sihlanganisa lenkululeko eyisisekelo, ngaleyo ndlela ivimbela amandla ombuso. Lemfundiso ibilokhu iyisisekelo kuyo yonke imizabalazo emikhulu yenkululeko yomphakathi yekhulu leminyaka elidlule, kusukela ekukhulumeni ngokukhululekile nasekumiseni izingxoxo nasekufuneni izicelo.

Ilungelo Lokuhlangana Ngokuthula: Ukusuka Ekubekeni Imingcele Yasendaweni Kuya Esiqinisekisweni Sesizwe

Ilungelo lokuhlangana livumela abantu ukuba bahlangane ngenjongo yokushoshoshosho − noma yinhlangano yehholo ledolobha, ukugada umsebenzi, noma ukubhikisha. Ngaphambi kokuba kufakwe, izifundazwe zazinegunya elikhulu lokulawula imibuthano yomphakathi, ngokuvamile zizenza sengathi zigcina ukuhleleka komphakathi. Ohulumeni bendawo bangavimbela amaqembu athile ukuba ahlangane ezindaweni zomphakathi, abeke izimali eziphezulu, noma agunyaze imithetho evimbela ukuhlangana okungaphikiswana. Ngaphandle kokuqondisa kukahulumeni, lemithetho ingavimbela ukuphikisa.

Inkathi yokushintsha yafika . Jonge v. Oregon [1937], icala eliyingqopha - mlando lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yavumelana khona ngokuthi ilungelo lokuhlangana ngokuthula liyilungelo elibalulekile elivikelwe ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni. Icala lihilela umhlangano wamakhomanisi owawuvunyelwe kodwa ubhekwa njengongekho emthethweni ngaphansi komthetho we-Oregon'smstrianism. Inkantolo yanquma ukuthi ukuba ukuba ukuba ukuba khona nje emhlanganweni onokuthula akunakwenziwa kube ubugebengu. Njengoba iJastie Hughes yabhala, ilungelo lokuhlangana liyi"eyimfanelo elinganayo kanye nezinye iziphetho zokuqala, futhi "izenziswe ukuphumelela kwezinye izikhali."

I-corporation ayizange inikeze iziphakamiso ngokukhululekile zokungawanaki amalungelo omhlangano. Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham [1969]] , iNkantolo yashaya umthetho weBirmingham owanika izikhulu zedolobha ukwahlulela okungaguquguquki ngokomthetho ukunqabela imvume yokubuthwa. INkantolo yayikholelwa ukuthi noma yisiphi isimiso semvume kumelwe sisekelwe enina, okuqukethwe yizindinganiso ze-neutral. Lelicala, ingxenye ephakathi yendlela engokomthetho ye-Movition, iqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho nohulumeni bendawo ngeke basebenzise imithetho yokuvimbela ukubhikisha ngokuthula.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, amachashaza v. South Carolina (1963) yaqiniswa ukuthi ilungelo lokuhlangana lihlanganisa ilungelo lokuveza imibono embonini yomphakathi eduze kwezakhiwo zikahulumeni. INkantolo yagumbuqela izinkolelo zokuthula zamalungelo omphakathi zabasekeli abangamademoni abagxumele emagcekeni ezwe, imemezela ukuthi iSichibiyelo Sokuqala (iSiphendulo) singene ngonyaka ka 1449th . Ngaphandle kokufakwa komphakathi ngokuthula.

Ilungelo Lokunxusa: Isivikelo Ekuphindiselweni

Ilungelo lokunxusa uhulumeni ukuba alungise izikhalo lidala kakhulu kumalungelo eSichibiyelo Sokuqala, esinezimpande zeMagna Carta neSigqi se-Lill of English Rights. Livikela ikhono lezakhamuzi lokuxhumana nawo wonke amagatsha kahulumeni(legislative, isikhulu, nehlulelo yokwahlulela) ngaphandle kokwesaba ukuphindisela. Ukuvikelwa kwalendawo kwadluliselwa kuhulumeni nasezenzo zikahulumeni wendawo, kuhlanganise nezicelo ezidluliselwe emikhandlwini yamadolobha, ezindlini zombuso, noma ngisho nasezinkantolo.

Enye yezigebengu ezibaluleke kakhulu ezibonisa ithonya lokufakwa kwamalungelo okuncenga li [FLT][FLT]NAACP v. Alabamaex rel. Patterson (188). Izwe lase-Alabama lalifune ukuphoqelela ukuba amalungu alo abhale izinhlu, ngokuwehlisa amandla amalungu okunxusa uhulumeni ukuba alingana ngokohlanga. INkantolo Ephakeme yathi ukuphoqelelwa kwezinhlu zamalungu kwenkululeko yokuhlangana [1]a ukuthi iNkantolo yayise yayisifake i-kathathu i-ka i-kakhulu esiphenduku. Lesi sinqumo sasivikela i-NACP kanye nekhono likahulumeni lokunxusa i-Redress.

Icala likaDuryea v. Guarnieri (2011), iNkantolo Ephakeme yacacisa ukuthi i-Revolution Claus isebenza kuhulumeni nakubaqashi bendawo. Icala eliphathelene nephoyisa elifaka icala ngokunqatshelwa kwakhe, neNkantolo lisekela ilungelo lokufaka zonke izinhlobo zezicelo ze-octres, kuhlanganise ne-ligijimi. Ngisho noma umphumela ulinganisela izinga lesicelo khona kanye emsebenzini womphakathi, icala labonisa ukuthi ukuhlanganisa kuyaqhubeka ukuqondisa izinkantolo ngokumelene nesenzo sokulunga.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, Dolopo yeLakewood v. Plain Dealer Power Co. [1988] wathumela ilungelo lokunxusa ngomsakazo, waqinisekisa ukuthi umbuso nohulumeni wendawo ngeke bakwazi ukugunyaza ukusakazwa kwamaphephandaba `indlela yokunxusa nenkulumo(indlela) futhi ngaphandle kwezindinganiso ezifanele. Lezi zenzakalo zibonisa ukuthi ukufakwa kwesicelo kuye kwenza ilungelo lokucela ithuluzi elisebenzayo lezakhamuzi ukuba ziphikise imithetho nezimiso zikahulumeni.

Izindaba Eziyinhloko Ezachaza Ukuhlangana Nezicelo Zomhlangano

Ngaphandle kwezibonelo ezaziwayo, ezinye izinqumo eziningana ziye zathonya indlela lamalungelo asebenza ngayo ngaphansi kwegunya likahulumeni:

  • Gitlow v. New York (1925): Nakuba yasekela ukuqiniseka kukaBenjamin Gitlow kokukhuthaza ukuguqulwa, icala lalingokomlando ngoba iNkantolo Ephakeme yacabanga ukuthi `Qaphela ) ngaphandle kokunquma ukuthi isiVumiso sokuqala sisebenza ezizweni nge-Century Procession Clause. Lokhu kwavula umnyango wokuhlanganisa ingqungquthela nesicelo kamuva.
  • [FLT]Stomberg v. California (1931): INkantolo yawisa umthetho kahulumeni ovimbela ukuboniswa kwefulege elibomvu njengesibonakaliso sokumelene nohulumeni ohleliwe. Isinqumo sahlanganisa isivikelo seSichibiyelo sokuqala senkulumo engokomfanekiso, ngokuvamile esihlangene nomhlangano nesicelo.
  • HAgue v. CIO (1939]] : Endabeni yabaphathi benhlangano yezisebenzi abakhuluma emigwaqweni yasedolobheni, iNkantolo yamisa ukuthi imigwaqo yomphakathi namapaki kuphathiswe ukukhokhwa komphakathi ekusebenziseni umhlangano nenkulumo, futhi leyo mikhakha engakwazi ukubeka imingcele yangaphambili kulawomalungelo ngaphandle kokudwetshwa kancane, okuqukethwe yizimiso ze-neutral.
  • .Collins (1945): INkantolo yashaya umthetho weTexas owawufuna abahleli bezisebenzi ukuba bathole ilayisense phambi kokucela amalungu. UJustice Rutledge wabhala ukuthi ilungelo lokuhlanganisa nokunxusa lihlanganisa ilungelo lokukhuluma nokuhlela, futhi lelo thonya kumelwe lihlolwe ngokunembe.
  • I-CITIZENNURN [UMhlangano we-[Federal Instruction Commission] (2010): Ngokuyinhloko ikhankanyiwe yicala lezezimali, isinqumo saqinisekisa futhi ukuthi izinkampani zinelungelo lokuzinzisa ISichibiyelo Sokuqala [1] kuhlanganise nelungelo lokunxusa ngezindleko ezizimele zezombangazwe, kanye nokuthi lawomalungelo manje ahlanganisiwe ngokugcwele ngokumelene nezifundazwe. Lokhu kulokhu kuhlala kulokhu kungomunye wemikhankambiso ephikisana kakhulu yokuhlanganisa.

Izicelo Ezibanzi: Indlela Ukungenela Kwentando Yeningi Okwashintsha Ngayo

Ukuhlanganiswa kwamalungelo enhlangano nezicelo kuye kwaba nomphumela omkhulu ekuphileni komphakathi waseMelika. Kuye kwenza ukuba izinhlangano zezenhlalo zenzakale zisebenze zisuka emalungelweni omphakathi ziye emalungelweni omphakathi kuya ekulinganani − ukuhlela ukunqamula imigqa yombuso ngaphandle kokubhekana nezindinganiso ezihlukene kakhulu ezingokomthetho. Ukubhikisha e-Alabama kuthola isivikelo somthetho-mfantu njengasodwa eCalifornia, okungenani ngokwenkolelo. Lokhu kufana kuveza indawo yesizwe yenkululeko, ngaphansi kwayo okungenakukwehla.

Ukuquliswa futhi kwanika izinkantolo zikahulumeni amandla okubukeza isifundazwe nemithetho yendawo evimbela ukunxusa. Izakhamuzi ziphathwe ukwenqaba komkhandlu wedolobha ukuzwa isicelo sazo noma umthetho kahulumeni ojezisa abacela ukugujwa komthetho zingaletha icala ngaphansi U.S.C. . . . . 1983, ovumela umonakalo nokukhululeka kokuphucwa kwamalungelo omthetho. Lekhankanyo lingaba buthakathaka kakhulu ngaphandle kokufakwa kwe-Elissaucle.

Izinselele zanamuhla ziyaqhubeka zihlola imingcele yalamalungelo. Ukuvela kwezenhlalo zezokuxhumana kuye kwaphakamisa imibuzo yokuthi ilungelo lokucela lidlulela ku-inthanethi ye-produm elawulwa uhulumeni. Ingabe ukuvimbela kwe-projekthi ye-Tutter kuphula umthetho ka-Claus onxusayo? Izinkantolo ezisezantsi ziqale ukulwa nalezi zindaba, futhi izimpendulo zixhomeke ekutheni iSichibiyelo sokuqala esifakiwe sisebenza kanjani kumapulatifomu emishini.

Indima Yezinhlangano

Ukuhlobanisa akuzuzisanga abantu kuphela. Izinhlangano, kuhlanganise nezinkampani, ziye zalicela ngokuphumelelayo ilungelo lokunxusa ukuthonya umthetho, iziqondiso, nokufuna ukuvuselelwa ngezinkantolo. [FLT]] uPacific Gas & Genetic Co. v. Public Unitity Commission [1986] [FLT] [1986], iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi inkampani inenkululeko yokufaka isicelo ngokuthumela izithako zomhleli ezinhlamvwini zayo. Lokhu kufakwa kwamalungelo enkampani yezicelo zezezimali kuye kwabangela ukuba kube nezingxoxo ezilinganayo phakathi kwezakhamuzi ezicela ukukhonziswa kwezomnotho.

Noma kunjalo, isimiso esiyinhloko sisasele: ukuhlanganiswa kwesiqinisekiso sokuthi akukho mbuso ongase ube nelungelo lokuqoqa izigqebhezana, ukukhuluma ezindlebeni zomphakathi, noma ukumangalela uhulumeni ukuze kutholakale usizo. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi lowo ocelayo uyinhlangano yasekhaya yasekhaya noma uyiqembu lobuzali, iSichibiyelo se 14 seSikhawulo sezwe siqinisekisa ukuthi umnyango wombuso awuvalwanga.

Izindaba Zangesikhathi Esizayo Nekusasa Lomhlangano Ofakiwe Namalungelo Ayizicelo

Nakuba ukuhlanganiswa kwezindawo kuye kwathola isilinganiso esiyisisekelo sesivikelo, izigodlo zisenenkululeko yokubeka isikhathi, indawo, nendlela yokubona imingcele emihlanganweni kanye nokuthola izicelo. Umqedazwe we-COVID-19 wavivinya lemingcele, njengoba izikhulu zimisa imingcele yokuqoqa kuyilapho izakhamuzi zifuna ilungelo lokuphikisa iziyalezo zempilo yomphakathi. Izinkantolo ze-Frederal zivame ukusekela izinyathelo ezinengqondo zempilo kodwa zabulala lezo ezazephula imibono ephambene neyazodwa.

Enye indawo ephumayo yi- lungelo lokunxusa emongweni wamazwi omphakathi. Matal v. Tam (2017]), iNkantolo Ephakeme yahlasela isigqebhezana seLanham Act, eyayisetshenziselwa ukuphika ukubhalisa izimpawu zegama lokugxeka. Nakuba ingasetshenziswanga icala lesicelo nge-se-sethi, yagcizelela ukuthi uhulumeni awunakulahla uhlobo lwesicelo sokulawula. Umqondo osekelwe embonweni. Umqondo wokuhlelwa kokuhlelwa kweLanham Act , usikisela ukuthi ungenza kanjalo.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuhlanganiswa kweSichibiyelo sesibili [[FLT]] McDonald v. Chicago (2010]) ngezinye izikhathi kuye kwaxoxwa ukuthi kuyahlanganiswa namalungelo emihlangano, njengoba ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izinga lokuphatha izikhali lingathinta ukuphepha kwemihlangano yomphakathi. Nokho, iNkantolo ayikahlanganisi ngokuqondile izimfundiso ezimbili. Imithetho eqhubekayo yesibhamu yombuso iyakuvivinya ukuthi ingqungquthela nelungelo lidinga yini ukuhlanganisa izikhundla ezihlomile.

Isiphetho: Ithonya Elihlala Njalo Lokungahambisani Nezikhundla

Imfundiso yokuhlanganisa iye yaliguqula ngokuyisisekelo ilungelo lokuhlanganisa nokufaka isicelo kuhulumeni wesiqinisekiso sabavikeli abagunyaziwe kuhulumeni nakunoma iyiphi indawo. Ngaphandle kokuqashwa, i-Civil Rights Movement ingavalwa amaqhinga agunyaziwe uhulumeni, izinyunyana zezisebenzi zazingase zincishiswe imithetho yendawo emelene nokuhlelwa kwezinhlelo, futhi izakhamuzi ezivamile zazingajeziswa ngokusayina izicelo. Ngokusebenzisa iSiphendulo Sokuqala ezizweni, iNkantolo Ephakeme iqinisekise ukuthi lamalungelo awayona nje imicabango ecatshangelwayo kodwa aphile ngempela.

Kodwa akukhona ukunqoba okungaguquguquki. Isizukulwane ngasinye sibhekana nezinselele ezintsha `i-FLTY], ukunxusa kwenkampani, imingcele yempilo yomphakathi--(isithiyo) ezifuna ukuba izinkantolo zinqume ukuthi ilungelo elihlanganisiwe lithatha isikhathi esingakanani. Ifa lamacala anjenge Jonge kanye [FLT] ne[FLT] Shutlesworthworth [[[[[FLTL:3]]] lisikhumbuza ukuthi ilungelo lokuhlangana nokunxusa lintekela ngaphandle kokuba livikelelwe njalo. Ngenxa ye-Convotion, ukuvikela kungathatha indawo enkantolo yombuso, kanye nobukhulu bomthetho womthetho ofuna ukukhuluma, ukuqoqa, nokufuna imvume.