Izakhiwo Zezinkantolo Zesifunda: Ukuwohloka Okulula

Isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni eUnited States singelinye lamagatsha amathathu kahulumeni alinganayo, asebenza njengengalo yokwahlulela enomthwalo wokuchaza nokusebenzisa imithetho kahulumeni. Yamiswa yi-Athistu III yoMthetho-sisekelo, lesimiso esiyinkimbinkimbi sihlanganisa amazinga amaningi, ngalinye elinezindima eziqondile, imithwalo yemfanelo, nezindawo ezisebenza ndawonye ukuqinisekisa ukuthi ubulungisa bulawulwa kahle futhi bungaguquguquki phakathi kwesizwe. Ukuqonda lesi sakhiwo se-hierarchicarchis kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda ukuthi izindaba zihamba kanjani ngenqubo yokwahlulela, indlela ezandulela-mthetho ezimiswa ngayo, nendlela okugcinwa ngayo, nendlela umthetho osebenza ngayo emphakathini waseMelika.

Ijaji likahulumeni lisebenza ngokwalo kumagatsha emithetho nezikhulu, linikeza isimiso esibalulekile sokuhlola nokulinganisela okuvikela amalungelo abantu futhi liqinisekisa ukuthi alikho igatsha likahulumeni elinamandla kakhulu. Lokhu kuzimela kuvumela amajaji asemthethweni ukuba enze izinqumo ezisekelwe emthethweni nasemithethweni kunokucindezela kwezombangazwe noma umbono othandwayo. Isakhiwo ngokwaso sibonisa umbono wabasunguli besimiso esilinganiselayo esingasingatha izimpikiswano kusukela ezindabeni zikahulumeni ezivamile kuya kwimibuzo enzulu ethinta ikusasa lesizwe.

Izakhiwo Ezintathu Eziphithizelayo Zamankantolo Esizwe

Isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni sisebenza ngesakhiwo sezikhulu ezinezingxenye ezintathu ezinikeza amazinga amaningi okubukeza futhi ziqinisekise ukucatshangelwa okucophelelayo kwezindaba zomthetho. Lenhlangano enjenge-piramid Courts engaphansi, iziNkantolo Zokudlulisa Izikhalo eziphakathi, neNkantolo Ephakeme ephethe iqophelweni eliphezulu. Izinga ngalinye lifeza umsebenzi ohlukile nobalulekile ekuqondiseni kwemithetho kahulumeni, futhi lamacala aqala ezingeni eliphansi kakhulu futhi angakwazi ukuqhubekela phezulu ngesimiso esisekelwe ekudluliseni kwezicelo nakukubaluleka kwemibuzo engokomthetho ehilelekile.

Le ndlela elandelanayo ifeza izinjongo eziningana ezibalulekile. Isakaza amacala amakhulu ezinkantolo eziningi, iqinisekisa ukuthi izinqumo zomthetho zihlolwa kaningi uma kudingekile, ivumela ukuqondiswa kwamaphutha enziwe ezingeni eliphansi, futhi yenza isimiso lapho imibuzo ebaluleke kakhulu neyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu engokomthetho ifinyelela khona enkantolo ephakeme kakhulu. Isakhiwo futhi sikhuthaza ukuvumelana ekufunyanweni komthetho wezwe kuyilapho sivumela ukuhlukahluka komphakathi nokuhlola ekuchazeni okungokomthetho emazingeni aphansi.

Izinkantolo Zesigodi ZaseUnited States: I - Foundation of Federal Justice

I-United States District Courts isebenza njengezinkantolo zokuqulwa kwecala lesimiso sikahulumeni futhi imelela indawo yokungena kuzo cishe zonke izinkantolo zikahulumeni. Lezinkantolo zilapho amacala kahulumeni aqala khona, lapho kunikezwa khona ubufakazi, ofakazi, namajaji ngamabomu. Izinkantolo zesigodi zinegunya lokuqala emacaleni amaningi kahulumeni, okusho ukuthi ziyizinkantolo zokuqala ukuzwa lezizindaba kunokuba zibukeze izinqumo ezenziwa kwenye indawo. Le ngxenye yesisekelo yenza ukuba zikwazi ukuveza ingxenye ebaluleke kakhulu yemithetho yejaji elinguwodwa ngokwezimo eziqondile kubantu ngabanye nezinhlangano ezihileleke ezingokomthetho.

Ukusakazwa Kwendawo Nenhlangano

I-United States ihlukaniswa yaba izigodi zokwahlulela ezingu-94 zikahulumeni, kanti iTexas inenkantolo yesifunda eyodwa okungenani esifundazweni ngasinye, isifundazwe saseColumbia, nesase-Puerto Rico. Ezinye izifundakazi eziningi zinezifunda ezizosingatha inani labantu abathe xaxa namacala. Ngokwesibonelo, iCalifornia inezinkantolo ezine zesifunda (eNyakatho, eMpumalanga, ePhakathi neseNingizimu), kanti iTexas inezine ezine (eNyakatho, eMpumalanga, eMpumalanga, naseNtshonalanga). Le ndawo iqinisekisa ukuthi ukwahlulela kukahulumeni kuyafinyeleleka kulo lonke izwe futhi izinkantolo zingaveza ukujwayelana nezimpikiswano zesifunda nezinkinga.

Inkantolo yesigodi ngayinye inamajaji amaningi, anenani elihlukahlukayo elisekelwe ekuncipheni kwecala nasemphakathini wesifunda. Izifunda ezinkulu zingaba namajaji amaningi, kanti izifunda ezincane zingaba nezimbili kuphela noma ezintathu. La majaji amiswa uMongameli futhi aqiniswe iSigele, akhonza izinqumo zobukhokhozi phakathi nokuziphatha okuhle. Lokhu kuphila kuklanyelwe ukuvikela amajaji ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe futhi kubavumela ukuba benze izinqumo ezisekelwe emthetho nasemaphuzwini.

Ukuqulwa Kwamacala Nezinhlobo Zawo

IziNkantolo zeSithili zizwa izinhlobonhlobo zecala elihilela umthetho kahulumeni, kuhlanganise kokubili izindaba zomphakathi nezezephulamthetho. Amacala ezakhamuzi enkantolo yesifunda angase ahlanganise izimpikiswano phakathi kwezakhamuzi zezifunda ezihlukene lapho isilinganiso sempikiswano sidlula khona amaRandi angu - 45 000, amacala kahulumeni ahilela imithetho ehlanganisa amalungelo ezakhamuzi, ukugunyaza nokukhipha amalungelo, ukukhokhwa kwemali, ukuquliswa kwezezimali, izindaba zokufuduka kwezwe, kanye nezindaba lapho uhulumeni wase-United States eyiqembu. Izigebengu zingahlanganisa ukumangalelwa ngenxa yokuphulwa kwemithetho engokomthetho engokomthetho kahulumeni, kusukela engokomthetho wezentengiselwano yezidakamizwa kanye nokushushumbisa izidakamizwa ezingokobuphekula imingcele yemvelo.

Igunya lezinkantolo zesifunda lichazwa yimithetho kahulumeni noMthetho-sisekelo. Ukubusa kwempikiswano yesifunda kuvumela izinkantolo zesifunda ukuba zizwe amacala avela ngaphansi koMthetho-sisekelo, imithetho kahulumeni, noma izivumelwano. Ukubusa kwezindawo ezihlukahlukene kuvumela izinkantolo zesifunda ukuba zizwe izimpikiswano phakathi kwezakhamuzi zasezifundazweni ezihlukene noma phakathi kwezakhamuzi namazwe angaphandle uma isilinganiso sempikiswano sihlangana nomthetho wezwe. Lesi sisekelo esihlangene sokulawula siqinisekisa ukuthi izinkantolo zesifunda zingasingatha kokubili izindaba zombuso ezikhethekile kanye nengxabano ezidinga ukungathathi hlangothi phakathi kwezakhamuzi zezwe noma izizwe zangaphandle uma ihlangene nemithetho engokomthetho.

Inqubo Yokuqulwa Kwecala Enkantolo Yesigodi

Izinkantolo zesithili zisingatha amacala ngokusebenzisa izinqubo ezifana nezinkantolo zenkantolo yecala kodwa zilandela imithetho kahulumeni yenqubo. Emacaleni omphakathi, amaqembu ahlanganyela ekutholeni, ukuthatha amafayela, futhi ekugcineni angase aqhubeke ukuqulwa phambi kwamajaji noma amajaji. Amacala ezelelwa icala ahilela ukumangalelwa okukhulu kwejaji noma izikhalo zobugebengu, ukuqulwa kwamacala, ukuqulwa kwamacala, ukuqulwa kwangaphambi kwecala, nokuqulwa kwecala lapho uhulumeni kumelwe abonise khona icala elingenakungabaza okunengqondo. Amajaji enkantolo yesigodi abuye aphathe izindaba zangaphambi kwecala, umthetho, aphathe izinqubo zecala, futhi akhiphe iziyalezo ezilawula indlela amacala asebenza ngayo.

Inqubo yokuqulwa kwecala enkantolo yesigodi ilapho kumiswa khona amaqiniso ngobufakazi bobufakazi, ubufakazi obuhleliwe, nangemibono engochwepheshe. Ngokungafani nezinkantolo ezibukeza imibuzo engokomthetho, izinkantolo zesigodi zenza izinqumo eziyiqiniso ezinikezwa imvume eqinile ekudluliseni icala. Amajaji asenkantolo yesigodi asebenza njengabatholi beqiniso emacaleni lapho icala lejaji licelwa futhi litholakala, kuyilapho amajaji esebenza njengabatholi bamaqiniso ekuqulweni kwebhentshi futhi njalo ekhonza njengabamangaleli bemibuzo engokomthetho.

Izinkantolo Zesigodi Ezikhethekile

Phakathi kwesimiso senkantolo yesigodi, ezinye izinkantolo ezikhethekile zisingatha izinhlobo ezithile zamacala. Izinkantolo zeBhankipruptic zisebenza njengezindawo zezinkantolo zesifunda futhi zisingatha zonke izindaba zokuwinwa kwemali ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni wokuwinwa kwemali. Abahluleli abamiswa abahluleli benkantolo yesigodi ukuze bavuselelwe, basingatha izindaba eziningi zokuqala kokubili emacaleni omphakathi nawobugebengu, basingatha imacala enkantolo engokomthetho ngokuvunyelwa kwamacala obugebengu, futhi bengamele izikhangiso ezingafanele. Lezi zingxenye ezikhethekile zivumela isimiso senkantolo sesifunda ukuba silawule ngokunenzuzo amacala ayo ahlukahlukene nabalulekile kuyilapho ziqinisekisa ukuthi abahluleli ngezindaba ezikhethekile.

Izinkantolo Zokudlulisa Amacala Zase - United States: Izinga Lokuphaza Kwase - Intermeterte

I-United States Courts of Appeals, ngokuvamile ebizwa ngokuthi iziNkantolo Zesifunda, iphethe iziqephu eziphakathi zesigaba sokwahlulela sikahulumeni futhi ifeza umsebenzi onzima ekubukezeni izinqumo ezenziwa izinkantolo zesifunda. Lezinkantolo ze-applate aziqhubeli amacala, zilalele ubufakazi, noma zihlole ubufakazi obufana nezinkantolo zesigodi. Kunalokho, zibukeza umbhalo obhaliwe ezinkantolo eziphansi, zicabangele iziphakamiso ezibhalwe amaqembu, futhi zivame ukuzwa izimpikiswano zomlomo ezivela kubameli ukuze zinqume ukuthi inkantolo yesifunda iwusebenzisa ngokufanele yini umthetho.

Izigodi Ezingu - 13 Ezihamba Ngezigaba

Isimiso sikahulumeni se-appellate sihlukaniswa sibe yizifunda eziyishumi nantathu, ngasinye sinezingxenye ezizimeleyo noma ezingaphansi. Izifunda eziyishumi nambili zalezi zinombolo futhi zimboze izindawo ezithile. Isifunda sokuqala sihlanganisa iMaine, iMassachusetts, iNew Hampshire, iRhode Island, ne-Puerto Rico. Isifunda Second sihlanganisa iConnecticut, i-New York, ne-Vermont. Isifunda sesithathu sihlanganisa i-Delaware, i-New Jersey, iPennsylvania, ne-Virginian Islands. Isifunda sesine sihlanganisa i-Maryland, i-North Carolina, i-South Carolina, i-Virginia, i-Virginia, ne-Westernversity. Isifunda sesihlanu sihlanganisa i-Lounice, i-Missichester, ne-Texas.

ISixteth Countring ihlanganisa iKentucky, iMichigan, i-Ohio, neTennessee. Isifunda seSeventh zihlanganisa i-Illinois, i-Indiana, i-Ians, i-Iowa, iMissopano, i-Missopas, iNebraska, i-North Dakota, ne-South Dakota. Isifunda se-Ninthnth , esikhulu kakhulu ngabantu nezindawo zendawo, sihlanganisa i-Alaska, i-Arizona, i-California, i-Idamoana, i-Menada, i-Oregon, i-Washington, i-Yam, i-Minthenam, i-Melitavia, i-New Mexico, i-Untaving, i-Otalogne, ne-Whoming. I-Friefth Colovalbate, ihlanganisa i-Alam, i-Florida, i-moricative, ne-DC. Isifunda sezwezwe line, izikhulu kakhulu lezwe li

Isifunda seshumi nantathu yiNkantolo yamacala e-United States ye-Federal Friesters, ephethe izwe lonke izindaba ezithile kunokuba ibe isifunda sendawo. Lenkantolo ekhethekile ilalela izikhalo emacaleni ahlanganisa umthetho osemthethweni osemthethweni, ukuhwebelana kwezizwe zonke, izivumelwano zikahulumeni, izinzuzo zochwepheshe, futhi izimpinda ezimelene nohulumeni. IFederal yadalelwa ukuthuthukisa ukufana kulezizindawo ezikhethekile zomthetho futhi yathuthukisa ubuchwepheshe phakathi kwamajaji abasingatha lezindaba eziyinkimbinkimbi njalo.

Ukubukeza Okuphindwayo Nezindinganiso

Izinkantolo ze Amacala ezihlola izinqumo zenkantolo yesifunda ukuze kubonwe ukuthi amaphutha angokomthetho awenziwe athinta umphumela wecala. Inqubo yokudlulisa icala iqala lapho iqembu lifaka isaziso sokudlulisa icala, ngokuvamile phakathi nezinsuku ezingu - 30 zesahlulelo sokugcina senkantolo yesifunda. Umemezeli ube esenikeza ukuphikisa okufushane okubhaliwe kokuthi inkantolo yesifunda yenza amaphutha angokomthetho, kuyilapho i-panelle ifaka i-profile yesinqumo senkantolo ephansi. Inkantolo ingahlela izimpikiswano zomlomo lapho abameli beveza khona izikhundla zabo futhi iphendule imibuzo eqoqweni labahluleli.

Izinkantolo zokuhlola zisebenzisa izindinganiso ezihlukene zokubukeza kuxhomeke ohlotsheni lwendaba edluliswayo. Imibuzo yomthetho ibukezwa nge-denovo, okusho ukuthi inkantolo ethatha isigwebo ayizibambi iziphetho ezingokomthetho zenkantolo yesifunda futhi inqume ukuthi iphakamisa umbuzo ngokomthetho ngokwayo. Okutholwa yinkantolo yesifunda kubukezwa ngaphansi kwendinganiso eyiphutha, incazelo izosekelwa ngaphandle kokuba inkantolo yenkantolo yenkantolo ishiywe ngesinqumo esiqinisekile nesiqinile. Izinqumo zokuqapha zenkantolo yesifunda, njengezinqumo ezisobala noma izinqumo zokuphatha icala, zibukezwa ngenxa yokusetshenziswa kabi kwecala, indinganiso ehloniphekile evumela ukuba inkantolo yesifunda ishintshe kuphela uma isinqumo noma ingenangqondo.

Izinqumo Zendawo Yokuhlala Nokubukeza Kwemingcele

Ukudlulisa amacala amaningi kunqunywa amajaji amathathu akhethwe ngokusemthethweni kumajaji asebenzayo esifunda. Lamaqembu abukeza irekhodi, acabangele izifushaniso nezimpikiswano, futhi akhiphe imibono ebhaliwe echaza izinqumo zawo. Izinqumo zendawo zibopha phakathi kwesifunda, okusho ukuthi izinkantolo zesifunda neziphakamiso zesikhathi esizayo kumele kulandele izimiso ezingokomthetho ezimiswe ngombono. Lokhu kuveza umthetho wesifunda olawula indlela umthetho kahulumeni ochazwa futhi usetshenziswe ngayo kuleyondawo.

Ezimweni ezingavamile ezihilela imibuzo ebaluleke kakhulu noma lapho isinqumo seqembu siphikisana nesandulela somjikelezo, icala lingase lizwelwe ngokuvinjelwa, lisho phambi kwabo bonke abahluleli abakhuthele besifunda. Ukubukeza i-En banc kuvumela inkantolo ephelele ukuba ixazulule izingxabano zangaphakathi, ikhulume ngokukhethekile ngemibuzo engokomthetho, noma iphinde iphinde iphinde ihlole inqubo yesifunda emisiwe. Isifunda seNinth, ngenxa yobukhulu bani elikhulu, sisebenzisa imingcele evimbelayo yabahluleli abayishumi nanye kunokuba sifune ukuba bonke abahluleli abakhuthele bahlanganyele. I-Enc inqumo yesinqumo ithwala ubunzima obukhulu kunezimiso zezindawo ezingokomthetho zesifunda futhi ngokuqinisekile simisa umthetho wesifunda ezidingisweni ezixoxwayo.

Indima Yezinkantolo Zesifunda Ekuthuthukeni Kwezomthetho

Izinkantolo zezikhalo zifeza indima ebalulekile ekuthuthukiseni umthetho kahulumeni nokuqinisekisa ukusebenza kwawo okungaguquguquki ezifundeni zazo. Ngenxa yokuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme ingalalela ingxenyana encane yamacala, izinqumo zenkantolo yesifunda zimelela igama lokugcina emibuzweni eminingi engokomthetho kahulumeni. Lezi zinkantolo zichaza izimiso zikahulumeni, zisebenzisa izimiso zomthetho ezisemthethweni ezimweni ezintsha, futhi zinikeza isiqondiso ezinkantolo zesifunda ngendlela yokusingatha izimpikiswano ezingokomthetho eziphindiwe. Imibono elotshiwe ekhishwa izinkantolo zesifunda isebenza njengezandulela ezilawulayo ezithi inqubo engokomthetho futhi ithonya kanjani abameli baluleka abathengi nezikhungo zezimiso.

Lezizifunda ezihlukene, lapho izifunda ezihlukene zifinyelela iziphetho ezihlukene ngendaba efanayo engokomthetho, ngokuvamile zishukumisela iNkantolo Ephakeme ukuba ixazulule izimpi futhi imise umthetho ofanayo wesizwe. Lokhu kuvumela ukuhlolwa nokuthuthukiswa kwemfundiso engokomthetho kodwa ekugcineni kulondoloze amathuba okuthi uma kuhlangene ezweni lonke kungena ukungenela kweNkantolo Ephakeme.

INkantolo Ephakeme Yase - United States: UMphathi Wokugcina

INkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States ihlala esiqongweni sesimiso sokwahlulela sikahulumeni futhi isebenza njengenkantolo yokugcina yemibuzo engokomthetho kahulumeni. Yamiswa yiSiphakamiso III soMthetho-sisekelo futhi yahlelwa nguMthetho kaJudiciary ka 1789, iNkantolo Ephakeme inegunya lakuqala nele-appelte, nakuba ngokuyinhloko isebenza njengenkantolo ehlaziya izinqumo ezivela ezinkantolo zikahulumeni eziphansi nasezinkantolo eziphakeme. Izinqumo zeNkantolo zibopha zonke ezinye izinkantolo eUnited States, izenza zibe umhumushi wokugcina womthetho kahulumeni noMthetho-Constitution.

Ukumisa Nokumisa Ubulungisa

INkantolo Ephakeme inezahlulelo eziyisishiyagalolunye: iJaji elilodwa eliyinhloko neJaji elingu 8 elihlangene nalo. Lelinani alichazwanga eMthethweni kodwa liye lamiswa yiSishayamthetho futhi liye lahlala lineminyaka engu-99 kusukela ngo-1869. Amalunga amiswa nguMongameli futhi kumelwe aqinisekiswe iNkathi Yezigele ngenqubo eye yaqhubeka iqinile futhi ibekwa icala ngokwezombangazwe emashumini eminyaka amuva. Uma iqinisekiswa, abahluleli bakhonza ukumiswa kokuziphatha okuhle, okusho ukuthi bangakhonza kuze kufike ekufeni, ukuthatha umhlalaphansi, noma ukususwa ngecala.

Ukumiswa kwamajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme kukho konke ukuphila kwabo kusebenza ukuze bavikeleke ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe futhi kubavumela ukuba benze izinqumo ezisekelwe ekuqondeni kwabo umthetho noMthetho-sisekelo ngaphandle kokwesaba ukulahlekelwa izikhundla zabo. Lokhu ukuzimela kubhekwa njengokubalulekile endima yeNkantolo njengokuhlolwa kwamagatsha ezombangazwe. Nokho, kusho futhi ukuthi abahluleli ngabanye bangawubumba umthetho waseMelika amashumi amaningi eminyaka, benze ukumiswa kwezinqumo zeNkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu phakathi kwezinqumo ezilandela kakhulu zikaMongameli ozenzayo.

Ukukhethwa Kwecala

INkantolo Ephakeme inegunya lokuqala enkantolo ephakathi kwesigaba esincane, kuhlanganise nezimpikiswano phakathi kwezindawo namacala ahilela amanxusa kanye nezinye izikhonzi zomphakathi. Nokho, umsebenzi omningi weNkantolo uhlanganisa ukulawulwa kwecala, ukubukeza izinqumo ezivela ezinkantolo eziphansi. Icala lifinyelela ngokuyinhloko ngezicelo ze-chertiorari, ukunxusa okusemthethweni lapho iNkantolo ikhetha khona ukuthi yimaphi amacala. INkantolo yamukela cishe izi - 7 000 kuya ku 8 000 izicelo zegama ngalinye kodwa inikeza imvume yokukhomba amacala acishe abe ngu 80 kuya kukhulu, izwa izimpikiswano zomlomo futhi ikhipha imibono ebhalwe ngokuphelele kulezindaba ezikhethiwe.

Inqubo yokukhetha icala yeNkantolo ibonisa indima yayo njengenhlangano ekhathalela ukuxazulula imibuzo ebalulekile yomthetho kahulumeni kunokuba ilungise wonke amaphutha enziwa yizinkantolo eziphansi. Inkantolo inikeza i-certioriri uma izifunda zifinyelele iziphetho eziphikisanayo ngendaba engokomthetho, uma icala linikeza umbuzo kahulumeni obalulekile ongazange uxazululwe, uma inkantolo ephansi inqume umbuzo obalulekile ngendlela ephikisana nenqubo yeNkantolo Ephakeme, noma lapho icala lihilela impikiswano ebaluleke kakhulu. Amajaji amane kumelwe avote ukuze anikeze i-ceritari yecala ukuze lizwakale, okuthiwaziwa njengomthetho wesine.

Imithetho Yenkantolo Ephakeme Nezenzo

Icala leNkantolo Ephakeme liqala ngoMsombuluko wokuqala ngo-October futhi liqala ngasekupheleni kukaJune noma ekuqaleni konyaka olandelayo. Phakathi negama, iNkantolo iyashintsha phakathi kokuhlala, lapho amajaji ezwa izimpikiswano zomlomo futhi ememezela izinqumo, nalapho amajaji ehlola amacala, ebhala imibono, futhi esingatha ezinye izikhankaso zeNkanto. Izimpikiswano zomlomo zihlelwa kahle ngoMsombuluko kuze kube ngoLwesithathu phakathi namasonto alandelayo, futhi uhlangothi ngalunye luthola imizuzu engu - 30 ukuze lunikezele icala lazo futhi luphendule imibuzo emeleni.

Ngemva kokuphikisana ngomlomo, abahluleli bahlangana engqungqutheleni ukuze baxoxe ngezindaba futhi bathathe amavoti okuqala. Uma uMahluleli oMkhulu ehola lemihlangano namavoti kuqala, alandelwa amaJaji ahlangeneyo ukuze alandele ukuphakama. Uma uMahluleli oMkhulu ephakathi kweningi, wabelana ukubhalwa kombono womphakathi noma omunye ukwahlulela okusemphakathini. Uma iJaji eliyinhloko lisezinhlwini ezimbalwa, uma ubulungisa obuphakeme kakhulu kunabo bonke benza isabelo. Amalunga angabhala imibono evumelanayo nomphumela kodwa anikeze ukuveza okuhlukile, noma aphikisa imibono echaza ukuthi kungani bephikisana nesinqumo seningi.

Umphumela Wezinqumo Zenkantolo Ephakeme

Izinqumo zeNkantolo ePhakeme zinemiphumela ejulile nehlala njalo emthethweni nasemphakathini waseMelika. Izincazelo zeNkantolo mayelana noMthetho-sisekelo zimisa amalungelo ayisisekelo kanye nesimo sikahulumeni. Izinqumo ze-stamente ziye zadingida izindaba ezisukela ekuhlukaniseni uhlanga namalungelo okuvota, umshado ongokobulili obufanayo, kanye nobukhulu bamandla kahulumeni. Ngenxa yokuthi izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme zingaphendulwa kuphela ngezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ezalandelayo noma ukulungisa umthetho, zimisa izimiso ezingokomthetho ezihlala izizukulwane ngezizukulwane.

Amandla eNkantolo yokwahlulela, asungulwa eMarbury v. Madison ngo-1803, avumela ukuba iqede imithetho nezenzo zikahulumeni eziphikisana noMthetho-sisekelo. Lo mbuso wenza iNkantolo Ephakeme ibe yinhlolo - kuhlolwa okubalulekile emagatsheni emithetho nabaphathi, iqinisekisa ukuthi izenzo zikahulumeni zivumelana nokulinganiselwa komthetho-sisekelo. Nokho, ibeka futhi umthwalo wemfanelo omkhulu kubahluleli abayisishiyagalolunye abangagunyaziwe ekwenzeni izinqumo ezithinta izigidi zamaMelika, eziholela ezimpikiswaneni eziqhubekayo ngendima efanele yejaji eliphethe umphakathi wentando yeningi.

Izinkantolo Ezikhethekile Ezihlangene Neziqu Zamacala

Ngalé kwesakhiwo esineziqu ezintathu zezinkantolo zesifunda, izinkantolo zesifunda, neNkantolo ePhakeme, ijaji likahulumeni lihlanganisa izinkantolo eziningana ezikhethekile ezasungulwa yiSishaya-mthetho ukuze zisingathe izinhlu ezithile. Lezi zinkantolo zinolwazi ezicini ezithile zomthetho futhi zinikeza izixazululo eziphumelelayo zezimpikiswano ezikhethekile. Nakuba zisebenza ngaphandle kwezakhiwo ezivamile ezintathu ezinezingxenye ezintathu, izinqumo zazo zingadluliswa ezinkantolo zikahulumeni ezivamile, zigcine ukuxhumana nesimiso sokwahlulela esibanzi.

I - United States Court of International Treade

I-United States Court of International Trade inegunya ezweni lonke lezenzwe zomphakathi ezibangelwa imithetho yezohwebo nemithetho kahulumeni ethinta ukuhwebelana kwezizwe ngezizwe. Lise-New York City, lenkantolo isingatha amacala ahilela imisebenzi yezentela, ukuhlelwa kwemithetho yezentengiselwano, izivumelwano zezohwebo, nemithetho evimbela ukuthunyelwa kwamanye amazwe. Ukugxila kwenkantolo ngokukhethekile kuvumela abahluleli bayo ukuba bathuthukise ulwazi olujulile emithethweni eyinkimbinkimbi elawula ezentengiselwano zomhlaba wonke, futhi izinqumo zayo zingadluliswa eNkantolo Yezini Yezikhalo Zokudlulisela Amacala.

Inkantolo Yase - United States Yokuthi I - Federal

INkantolo ye-United States ye-Federal Intelligences izwa iziphakamiso zemali ngokumelene nohulumeni wase-United States, kuhlanganise nezingxabano zesivumelwano, ukuthatha iziphakamiso ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sesihlanu, izisu zentela, kanye nezinye izikhalo ezihlukahlukene zokukhokha izindleko zemali. Lenkantolo inikeza imvume yokuba abantu namabhizinisi afune imbuyiselo kuhulumeni wezwe lapho bekholelwa ukuthi uhulumeni uphule isivumelwano noma wephule amalungelo abo ngendlela efuna ukukhokhelwa ngemali. Izikhalo ezivela eNkantolo yezentengo ye-Federal Areances ziya eNkantolo yeZikhundla Zomkhamu Zomkhandlu Zomphakathi.

INkantolo Yentela YaseUnited States

Inkantolo yeTaxis yase-United States iyinkantolo ekhethekile elalela izimpikiswano phakathi kwabakhokhi bentela ne-International Revolution Service ngokuphathelene nentela kahulumeni. Abakhokhi bentela banganxusa iNkantolo Yentela ngaphambi kokukhokha intela ephikiswayo, beyenza ikwazi ukukhokha intela yesinqumo esiyinselele se-IRS. Abahluleli benkantolo bayizazi zentela ezisingatha izindaba zobuchwepheshe eziyinkimbinkimbi eziphakamayo ezimpikiswaneni zentela. Izinqumo eziningi zeNkantolo Yentela zingadluliswa enkantolo yesifunda yesimemezelo yesi lapho umkhokhi wentela ehlala khona.

Inkantolo Yokudlulisa Amacala Yase - United States

INkantolo Yezikhalo yaseUnited States ihlola izinqumo ze-Board of Veterans ngokuphathelene neziphakamiso zomuntu osemnkantshwini. Le nkantolo ekhethekile iqinisekisa ukuthi omakad ’ ebona bayazicabangela ngokufanele iziphakamiso zabo zokukhubazeka, izinzuzo zempesheni, nezinye izinzuzo zochwepheshe. Ukugxila okukhethekile kwenkantolo emthethweni wochwepheshe kuvumela ukuba ithuthukise ulwazi kulendawo eyinkimbinkimbi futhi inikeze incazelo engaguquki yezinzuzo zalabo abangomalimo. Izinqumo zalenkantolo zinganxusela eNkantolo yeZinkantolo Zokudlulisela Izigwebo Zokuhamba Kwesifunda Sesizwe.

Izinkantolo Ezingalawuleki

Izinkantolo zebhankilprotactism zisebenza njengezinhlangothi zezinkantolo zesifunda futhi zisingatha wonke amacala avela ngaphansi komthetho weBankruptic Code. Lezinkantolo zengamela ukuphatha izindawo eziwiswe izimali, ukuxazulula izimpikiswano phakathi kwabakweletayo nabakweletwayo, futhi zinqume ukukhishwa kwezikweletu. Abahluleli bezimali bamiswa izinkantolo zesifunda ngeminyaka engu-14 kunokuba banikezwe izibopho zokuphila. Umthetho okhethekile wokuwiswa kwamacala okungakhokhwazwa kwemali zenza lezinkantolo ezinikezelwe zibaluleke kakhulu ekuqondiseni okuphumelelayo kwesimiso sokulahlekelwa imali.

Ukumiswa Nendima Yamajaji AbaseFederal

Amajaji angokombuso afeza indima ebalulekile esimisweni sikahulumeni waseMelika, futhi inqubo yokumisa kwawo ibonisa ukubaluleka kwesikhundla sawo. ISiphakamiso II soMthetho-sisekelo sinika uMongameli amandla kumajaji kahulumeni, angaphansi kokuqinisekiswa yiSigele. Lokhu kwahlanganisa umthwalo phakathi kwamagatsha aphethe ne-province kuqinisekisa ukuthi imibono eminingi ithonya ukukhetha kokwahlulela futhi inikeza isheke ngokumelene nokumiswa kwabazohlola abangaqeqeshiwe noma abadlulele.

Inqubo Yokukhipha Ikhanda

Inqubo yamajaji kahulumeni amisa iziqu iqala ngokuxhumana noMongameli ovela esifundazweni lapho kukhona khona isikhala, ikakhulukazi amanxusa eqembu likaMongameli ngokwakhe. Ukumiswa kwenkantolo yesigodi, izinyunyana ngokuvamile zifeza indima ebalulekile ekusikiseleni abazobhapathizwa ngomkhuba obizwa ngokuthi inhlonipho ye-senator. UMongameli ufaka isikhala se-gastant, futhi i-consitation ibhekiswe eKomitini yeSigelezezi ukuze ihlolwe.

ISigele seKomiti yoMkhandlu siqhuba izingxoxo lapho ummeli efakaza khona futhi ephendula imibuzo ngefilosofi yabo yokwahlulela, izimfanelo, nemibono yabo ezindabeni zomthetho. Ikomiti futhi ihlola isizinda somnyunyana, imibhalo, nemibono yokwahlulela uma ifanelekile. Ngemva kokuqulwa kwecala, ikomiti ivota ukuthi izobika ukuthi imvume ilungile yini eSigele esiphelele. ISigebengu esigcwele siphikisana ngokuncintisana nokuvota, ngenani elikhulu elidingekayo ukuze livunyelwe.

Ukuzimela Kokwahlulela Nokubhekana Nezinkathazo

Amajaji amiswe ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso III athola isikhathi sokuphila okungcono phakathi nokuziphatha okuhle, okusho ukuthi angasebenza kuze kube yilapho ekhetha ukuthatha umhlalaphansi, ukufa, noma esuswa ngokunganaki. Lokhu kumiswa kokuphila konke kuhloselwe ukuqinisekisa ukukhululeka kokwahlulela ngokukhulula abahluleli ezinkathazweni eziphathelene nokuphindela noma ukuphindisela kwezombangazwe ezinqubweni ezingathandwa. Abahluleli banganquma amacala asekelwe ekuqondeni kwabo umthetho noMthetho-Constitution ngaphandle kokuzikhathaza ngokulahlekelwa izikhundla zabo.

UMthetho-sisekelo uvikela ukuzimela kokwahlulela ngokunqabela iSishaya-mthetho ekunciphiseni amaholo abahluleli ngesikhathi besehhovisi. Lesi sivikelo siqinisekisa ukuthi amajaji awanakucindezelwa ngezindlela zezimali ukuze anqume izikhalo ezithile. Zonke, ukuvikela ukuphila nokuvikela iholo kwakha ijaji elizimele elikwaziyo ukusebenza njengesehlo emagatsheni ezombangazwe futhi livikele amalungelo abantu ngisho nalapho ukwenza kanjalo kungathandeki.

Izimiso Zokwahlulela Nokulandisa

Nakuba amajaji kahulumeni ejabulela inkululeko enkulu, ahlala ngaphansi kwemithetho yezimiso zokuhle kanye nezinqubo zokulandisa. Imithetho yeSimo saBahluleli baseUnited States imisa iziqondiso ezihlanganisa izindaba ezinjengezimpi zenzuzo, ukudalulwa kwezimali, nokuziphatha kokwahlulela okufanele.

Amajaji angokohulumeni angasuswa esikhundleni ngokujeziswa yiNdlu yabameleli nokuvunyelwa yiSigele, nakuba lelikhambi ligcinelwe ukuziphatha okubi okungathi sína futhi lingasetshenziswa kakhulu kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika. Imikhandlu yokwahlulela yesifunda ngasinye futhi inegunya lokuhlola izikhalo ngokuziphatha okubi kokwahlulela futhi inganikeza izijeziso ezingatheni zokukhishwa, njengokusola kwangasese noma komphakathi. Lezimiso zokulandisa zilinganisela ukuzimela kokwahlulela nesidingo sokulondoloza ukuthembela komphakathi ebuqothweni bejaji obungokomthetho.

Indlela Amacala Adlula Ngayo Enkantolo Yomphakathi

Ukuqonda indlela amacala athuthuka ngayo ngesimiso senkantolo kahulumeni kusiza ekucaciseni ubuhlobo phakathi kwamazinga ahlukene ezinkantolo nendima ngayinye ekuxazululeni izimpikiswano ezingokomthetho.

Ukumangalela Icala Enkantolo Yesigodi

Amacala kahulumeni aqala lapho ummangalelwa ekhipha isikhalo enkantolo yesifunda noma lapho abashushisi bakahulumeni befaka icala lobugebengu. Ukukhononda kumelwe kuqinisekise ukuthi inkantolo yesifunda inegunya ecaleni, kungaba ngegunya likahulumeni noma ngemithetho ehlukene. Ezindabeni zomphakathi, ummangalelwa unikezwa ngokukhononda nokunxusa futhi kumelwe abhalise impendulo noma okunye ukuphendula phakathi nesikhathi esithile esimisiwe. Emacaleni obugebengu, abamangalelwa bayaboshwa noma babizwe ukuba bavele futhi batshelwe ngamacala abamangalelwe wona.

Ngemva kokuba icala liqulwe, liqhubekela ezingeni elihlukene langaphambi kwenkantolo kuhlanganise nokuthola izinto, lapho izigigaba zidlulisela khona ukwaziswa nobufakazi, kanye nomkhuba wokuhamba, lapho abahilelekile becela khona inkantolo ukuba benze izinqumo ngezindaba ezingokomthetho. Amacala amaningi axazululwa phakathi nalesi sigaba sangaphambi komthetho ngokukhokha, ngokukhipha isigwebo esifushanisiwe. Amacala angaxazululwanga ngaphambi kokuba kuqulwe icala, lapho kunikezwa khona ubufakazi futhi umahluleli noma umsizi ekhipha isinqumo.

Ukudlulisela Icala Enkantolo Yesifunda

Ngemva kokuba inkantolo yesigodi ithathe isahlulelo sokugcina, iqembu elilahlekelwayo lingase lidlulisele icala enkantolo yesifunda efanelekile yesikhalo. I-facellar ifaka isaziso sokudlulisa icala futhi kamuva ifaka impikiswano emfushane yokuthi inkantolo yesifunda yenza amaphutha angokomthetho. I-apelle iphendula kafushane ngokuvikela isinqumo senkantolo yesifunda. Inkantolo yesifunda ibukeza umlando enkantolo yesifunda, icabangela izimpikiswano zamaqembu, futhi ingase izwe izimpikiswano zomlomo ngaphambi kokuba ikhiphe isinqumo.

Inkantolo yesifunda ingasiqinisekisa isinqumo senkantolo yesifunda, sibuye sibuyele emuva, noma sibuyisele icala enkantolo yesifunda ngenxa yecala eliqhubekayo elivumelana nesinqumo senkantolo ethatha icala. Isinqumo senkantolo yesifunda sibopha amaqembu futhi simisa isibonelo samacala esikhathi esizayo kulelosifunda. Amacala amaningi aphela enkantolo yesifunda, njengoba iNkantolo Ephakeme ibukeza amacala ambalwa kuphela.

Ukufuna Ukubukezwa Kwenkantolo Ephakeme

Iqembu elinganelisekile ngesinqumo senkantolo yesifunda lingase linxuse iNkantolo Ephakeme ukuba ithole imvume ye-certiorari. Isicelo kumelwe sichaze ukuthi kungani icala lifanele ukubukezwa kweNkantolo Ephakeme, ngokuvamile ngokubonisa ukuhlukana kwesifunda, umbuzo obalulekile ongaphenduliwe womthetho kahulumeni, noma isinqumo esiphikisana nesibonelo seNkantolo Ephakeme. Iqembu eliphikisayo likhipha ukuphikiswa okufushane, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme inquma ukuthi ingawunika yini u-ceritariri.

Uma iNkantolo Ephakeme inikeza i-certiorari, icala liqhubekela ekuxazululeni nasekukhulumeni impikiswano ngaphambi kokuba iNkantolo ikhiphe isinqumo sayo. Uma iNkantolo iphika i-certiorari, isinqumo senkantolo yesifunda siyisisho sokuphetha icala. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme sokuphika i-certiorari asibonisi ukuvunyelwa kwecala eliphansi; imane nje isho ukuthi iNkantolo ikhethe ukungabukeli icala.

Ubuhlobo Phakathi Kwezinkantolo Zomphakathi NoMbuso

I-United States inesimiso sezinkantolo ezimbili ezihlanganisa kokubili izinkantolo zikahulumeni nombuso, ngasinye siphethe kanye nezindawo zaso zegunya. Ukuqonda ubuhlobo phakathi kwalezizimiso ezimbili kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela isimiso sokwahlulela saseMelika sisebenza ngayo sisonke. Nakuba izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisingatha izindaba ezihilela umthetho kahulumeni noMthetho-sisekelo, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisingatha izimpikiswano ezinkulu ezingokomthetho eUnited States, kuhlanganise nezimpikiswano eziningi zobugebengu, izindaba zomthetho womkhaya, izimpikiswano zesivumelwano, neziphakamiso.

Ukunqunywa Okukhethekile Nokuphelele

Ezinye izinhlobo zamacala zingafakwa enkantolo kahulumeni noma kahulumeni, isimo esaziwa ngokuthi ukulawulwa kwesivumelwano. Ngokwesibonelo, amacala ahilela ukwahlukahlukana kwesabelo angagcinwa enkantolo kahulumeni kodwa futhi angagcinwa enkantolo kahulumeni. Amacala e-Federal ngezinye izikhathi angase abekwe enkantolo kahulumeni, ikakhulukazi uma iziphakamiso zikahulumeni zihlangene neziphakamiso zikahulumeni. Uma ukubambisana kukhona, ummangalelwa ovamile ukhetha ukuthi angawafaka kuphi amafayela, nakuba abamangalelwa ngezinye izikhathi bengase basuse amacala enkantolo kahulumeni.

Ezinye izinhlobo zamacala ziwela enkantolo ekhethekile futhi azinakuthethwa enkantolo kahulumeni. Lezi zihlanganisa amacala okuwiswa kwamalungelo emali, amacala asemthethweni nawamalungelo omgunyathi, amacala kahulumeni, namacala ahilela ukuphatha i-starmal kanye nomthetho wasolwandle. Le mithetho ekhethekile iqinisekisa ukuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni ezikhethekile zisingatha izindawo eziyinkimbinkimbi zomthetho kahulumeni futhi zikhuthaza ukufana ekuchazeni nakusetshenziswa kwale mithetho ezweni lonke.

Ukubukeza Okuqhubekayo Kwezinqumo Zenkantolo KaHulumeni

Nakuba izinkantolo zikahulumeni nohulumeni zisebenza njengezimiso ezihlukene, iNkantolo Ephakeme ingabukeza izinqumo zenkantolo kahulumeni ezihilela umthetho kahulumeni noma imibuzo engokomthetho-mthetho. Lokhu kuhlola kuqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni usetshenziswa ngokufanayo kuzo zonke izifundazwe futhi izinkantolo zikahulumeni aziwephuli amalungelo omthetho kahulumeni. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme ingabukeza kuphela izici zomthetho kahulumeni zezinqumo zenkantolo futhi kumelwe yamukele incazelo yenkantolo yomthetho kahulumeni.

Iziboshwa zikahulumeni ezikholelwa ukuthi amalungelo azo omthetho-mthetho womthetho-sisekelo aphulwayo zingafuna futhi ukubukezwa kwezicelo zenkantolo kahulumeni ze-habeas corpus ezibekwe enkantolo yesifunda sesifunda. Lokhu kuhlola kunikeza isivikelo esengeziwe samalungelo omthetho-sisekelo, nakuba kungaphansi kokulinganiselwa okuphawulekayo nokungabekezeli izinqumo zenkantolo. Ukutholakala kwe-paumenti ye-habeas kubonisa ukubaluleka kokuvikela amalungelo omthetho-mfantu kuyilapho kuphathelene nendima yezinkantolo zikahulumeni ekunikezeni ukwahlulela komthetho wobugebengu.

Imithetho Yomthetho

Izinkantolo ze-Federal zisebenza ngokwemithetho yemigomo eminingi elawula indlela amacala abekwa ngayo, abekwa ngayo, futhi anqunywe ngayo. Lemithetho ikhuthaza ubulungisa, ukusebenza kahle, nokuvumelana phakathi kwesimiso senkantolo kahulumeni. Imithetho ebaluleke kakhulu i-Federal Parlegs of Civil Procedure, i-Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, i-Federal Rules of Evicence, ne-Federal Real Real of Appelte Procediture.

Imithetho Yombango

Imithetho ye-Federal of Civil Procediture ibusa ukuqulwa kwemithetho esemthethweni ezinkantolo zesifundazwe. Lemithetho ikhuluma ngezimfuneko, izinqubo zokuthola, ukunyakaza, izinqubo zokwahlulela, nezindlela zokuthatha iziteshi zangemva kwe-computer. Imithetho iklanyelwe ukuvikela ukuzimisela okulungile, okusheshayo, nokungabizibizi kwezenzo zomphakathi. Bamisa izinqubo ezifanayo kuzo zonke izinkantolo zesifunda, nakuba izinkantolo ngazinye zingathatha imithetho yendawo eyonezela emithethweni kahulumeni.

Amalungiselelo ayinhloko e-Federal Rules of Civil Procedure ahlanganisa izimfuneko zokunxusa, lapho izikhalo kumelwe zinikeze khona inkulumo emfushane nengasho lutho; imithetho ebanzi yokuthola evumela amaqembu ukuba athole ukwaziswa okuvumelana nokusho kwawo noma izisekelo; futhi amalungiselelo okwahlulela okufingqiwe okuvumela izinkantolo ukuba zixazulule izindaba ngaphandle kokuqulwa lapho kungekho mpikiswano yangempela. Lemithetho ilinganisela isidingo sentuthuko ephelele ngokukhathalela izindleko zomphakathi nokulibala.

Imithetho Yesigebengu

I-Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure ibusa ukuquliswa kwecala enkantolo kahulumeni, kusukela ekuqaleni ukuqulwa kwecala nokugwetshwa. Lemithetho inikeza izikhungo ezingokomthetho kubamangalelwa becala lapho inikeza izinqubo zokuqondisa ukuhleleka komthetho wobugebengu. Bakhuluma ngezindaba ezinjengokubopha, ukuvela kokuqala, ukuqulwa okukhulu, ukuqulwa kwecala, ukutholwa kwamacala obugebengu, izinqubo zokuqulwa kwecala, nokugwetshwa kwesigwebo.

Imithetho yobugebengu ibonisa isivikelo esikhudlwana esinikezwa abamangalelwa abamangalelwa ngaphansi koMthetho-sisekelo, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokuqulwa kwecala okusheshayo, ilungelo lokubhekana nofakazi, nelungelo lokumelana nokuziphikisa. Bamisa futhi izinqubo zokunxusa, ezixazulula amacala amaningi kakhulu obugebengu obuhlangene ngaphandle kokuqulwa. Imithetho ilinganisela isithakazelo sikahulumeni ekubekeni imvume ephumelelayo engokomthetho kanye neyommangalelwa ekuqulweni okulungile nenqubo efanele.

Imithetho Ewubufakazi

Imithetho ephethe yobufakazi ibusa ukubonakala kobufakazi enkantolo kahulumeni. Lemithetho inquma ukuthi yikuphi ukwaziswa okunganikezwa abahluleli nabahluleli futhi imise izindinganiso ezisebenza, ezithembekile nezingagwegwesi. Amaphakethe abalulekile athinta inzwabethi kanye nokungagunyazi kwayo, ukuqinisekiswa kwezincwadi, ubufakazi obuqaphile, amalungelo, kanye nokungagunyazwa kofakazi.

Ubufakazi bunezinjongo eziningi, kuhlanganise nokuthuthukisa ukutholwa kweqiniso okunembile, ukuqinisekisa ukuthi kulungile, ukuvikela ubuhlobo obubalulekile ngamalungelo, nokuthuthukisa ukuphumelela ekuhlaziyweni kwemithetho. Izifundazwe eziningi ziye zamukela imithetho yobufakazi esekelwe emithethweni kahulumeni, zithuthukisa ukungaguquguquki phakathi kwezindaba zenkantolo kahulumeni nombuso. Imithetho ihlelwa ngokulandelana njalo ukuze idingide ubuchwepheshe obusha nokuqonda okungaguquguquki kokwethembeka nokungaguquguquki ekunikezeni ubufakazi.

Icala Eliningi Nezinkundleni Zomphakathi

Isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni sisingatha amakhulu ezinkulungwane zamacala unyaka ngamunye, umsebenzi osakazwa eziteji ezintathu zezinkantolo. Ukuqonda umthamo nezinhlobo zamacala kusiza ekuboniseni ukusebenza okuwusizo kwejaji likahulumeni nezinselele elibhekene nazo ekuqondiseni ubulungisa ngokuphumelelayo kuyilapho kugcinwa izinga nokulunga.

Icala Lenkantolo Yesigodi Ligcwele

Izinkantolo zesifunda zesifunda zisingatha amacala amakhulu kakhulu esimisweni sikahulumeni, futhi kubekwe amacala angaba ngu-400,000 ngonyaka. Amacala ombango akha izinkantolo zesifunda eziningi, kuhlanganise nezimpikiswano zesivumelwano, iziphakamiso, amacala elungelo lomphakathi, nezindaba zempahla. Amacala obugebengu aveza ingxenye encane kodwa ebaluleke kakhulu yechweba, nabashushisi bamazwe abaletha amacala okuphulwa kwemithetho yezephulamthetho zikahulumeni kusukela emacala ezidakamizwa kuya emacaleni amhlophe amacala ezwelonke.

Ukusebenza kwezinkantolo zesigodi kuye kwakhula kakhulu phakathi namashumi eminyaka njengoba uMkhandlu uye wadala izimbangela ezintsha zikahulumeni zesenzo nombuso onwetshiwe wobugebengu. Lokhu kukhula kuye kwaholela ekukhathazekeni ngemithombo yokwahlulela nokuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinamajaji nezisebenzi ezanele yini ukuze zisingathe amacala azo ngokuphumelelayo. Ngezikhathi ezithile kusungulwa inqubo entsha yamajaji ukuze kuxazululwe iziqu zamacala akhushuliwe, nakuba ukumiswa kokwaneliswa kwalezizikhundla kungathatha kancane futhi kuhlolwe ngokwezombangazwe.

Ukuqulwa Kwamacala Enkantolo Yesifunda

Izinkantolo zesifunda zamacala zithola izikhalo ezicishe zibe ngu - 50 000 minyaka yonke ezinkantolo zesifunda, eziphetheyo, nakwezinye imithombo. Umqulu wezicelo uye wakhula kakhulu ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, okuholela ekukhathazekeni ngekhono lezinkantolo zesifunda lokuhlola ngokucophelela izinqumo zenkantolo eziphansi. Ukusingatha iziqu ezithwele amacala, izinkantolo zesifunda ziye zasungula izinqubo zokuhlola amacala nokunquma izikhalo ezithile ngaphandle kokuphikisa ngomlomo noma ukukhipha imibono.

Icala lihluka kakhulu phakathi kwezifunda, ngokuphatha iSifunda seNinth inani elikhulu kakhulu lezicelo ngenxa yendawo yaso enkulu kanye nenani labantu. Izinkantolo zesifunda kumelwe zilinganisele isidingo sempumelelo nokubaluleka kokunikeza i-applate ecacile nokusungula izenzakalo ezicacile ezingokomthetho. Ukusetshenziswa kwabameli bezisebenzi, omabhalane bomthetho, kanye nezinqubo ezilandelanayo kusiza izinkantolo zesifunda ukuba zikwazi ukusingatha umsebenzi wazo kuyilapho zilondoloza izinga lesinqumo sazo.

Ukuqulwa Kwamacala Enkantolo Ephakeme

INkantolo Ephakeme ithola izicelo ezingaba ngu 7 000 kuya ku-8 000 zegama ngalinye kodwa inikeza ukubukeza emacaleni angaba ngu-80 kuya kwayikhulu. Lendawo ekhetha kakhulu yenza iNkantolo ikwazi ukugxila emibuzweni ebaluleke kakhulu yomthetho kahulumeni nomthetho-sisekelo. Ikhono elilinganiselwe leNkantolo lisho ukuthi izinqumo eziningi zenkantolo yesifunda azibukezeki ngeNkantolo Ephakeme, yenza izinkantolo zesifunda zibe abavikeli bokugcina bomthetho kahulumeni ezimweni eziningi.

Isikhululo seNkantolo Ephakeme sibonisa indima yaso njengenhlangano ekhathalela ukuxazulula imibuzo ebalulekile engokomthetho nokuqinisekisa ukuvumelana komthetho kahulumeni kunokuba kulungiswe amaphutha ecala ngalinye. Lendlela ekhethayo yenza iNkantolo ikwazi ukulicabangela kahle icala ngalinye elizwakalayo futhi iveze imibono ecaciswe ngokucophelela enikeza isiqondiso ezinkantolo eziphansi nasemphakathini ongokomthetho. Nokho, isho futhi ukuthi eminye imibuzo ebalulekile engokomthetho ingaxazululeka ngezikhawu ezithé xa ingafinyeleli inkantolo.

Indima Yeziqu Zakuqala Ezinkantolo Zomphakathi

Imfundiso yokubheka, esho "ukuma ngezinto ezinqunyiwe," inendima ebalulekile esimisweni senkantolo kahulumeni. Lesimiso sithi izinkantolo kufanele zilandele izenzakalo ezamiswa ezicaleni zangaphambili lapho kunqunywa izindaba ezifanayo. I-precent ikhuthaza ukungaguquguquki, ukubikezela, nokuzinza emthethweni kuyilapho ivumela ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kancane kancane njengoba izinkantolo zisingatha izimo ezintsha nezishintshayo zezenhlalo.

Ukuphetha nokuthonya

Iziphakamiso zingaba ezibophayo noma ezishukumisayo. Isibonelo sokuqondisa, esibizwa nangokuthi igunya eliphoqelelwe, kumelwe silandelwe izinkantolo eziphansi phakathi kwegunya elifanayo. Izinkantolo zesigodi kumelwe zilandele izenzakalo ezimiswe inkantolo yesifunda enegunya phezu kwazo kanye neNkantolo Ephakeme. Izinkantolo zesifunda kumelwe zilandele izinqubo zeNkantolo ePhakeme nezinqumo zazo siqu zangaphambili, nakuba zingahlola kabusha izenzakalo zazo ngokubukeza ngovinya.

Isibonelo esiqinile sihlanganisa izinqumo ezivela kwezinye izifunda, izinkantolo zikahulumeni, nezinkantolo eziphansi ezingaphakathi kwesimiso esifanayo. Nakuba zingabophanga, isibonelo esikholisayo singathonya ukwenza izahlulelo zokwahlulela, ikakhulukazi lapho kuxoxwa ngezindaba ezinonolwazi noma lapho ukusikisela kwenye inkantolo kuphoqelekile. Izinkantolo zivame ukunikeza isibonelo esikholisayo lapho isibonelo esibophayo singayixazululi ngokuqondile indaba ekhona noma lapho zicabangela ukuthi kufanele yini ithathe indlela ethile yokusingatha indaba engokomthetho.

Ukuqamba Ngokweqile

Nakuba ngokuvamile kulandelwa inqubo elandelayo, izinkantolo zingazilawula izinqumo zazo ngaphambi kokuba ziphethe ngokuthi isinqumo sangaphambili sasinqunywe ngokungafanele noma ukuthi izimo ezishintshile zidinga indlela ehlukile. INkantolo Ephakeme inamandla okulawula izenzakalo zayo, nakuba yenza kanjalo kancane futhi ikakhulukazi ngemva kokucabangela ngokucophelela izithakazelo zokuthembela eziye zavela ngokusekelwe ekubusweni okukhona nokubaluleka kokuzinza emthethweni.

Izinkantolo zezigodi zingalawula ezazo izicathulo ngokubukeza i-bacc, lapho bonke abahluleli abakhuthele besifunda behlola khona umbuzo ongokomthetho. Iziphakamiso zesifunda ngasinye azinakulawula inqubo yesifunda futhi kumelwe zilandele izinqumo zezindawo zokuqala ngisho noma zingavumelani nokucabanga. Lomthetho uthuthukisa ukungaguquguquki esifundeni ngasinye futhi uvimbela ukushintshwa okusekelwe ekutheni indawo ehleliwe iqala ukuzwa icala elithile.

Ukufinyelela EMahlulelweni Nasezinkantolo Zomphakathi

Ukunikeza ukufinyelela okunenjongo ezinkantolo zikahulumeni kubalulekile ekuqondiseni ubulungisa. Nokho, imingcele ehlukahlukene ingenza kube nzima ngabantu ngabanye ukuphishekela amalungelo abo enkantolo kahulumeni, kuhlanganise nenkokhelo yokukhokha, ukuyinkimbinkimbi kwezinqubo ezingokomthetho, nezindleko zokumelelwa ngokomthetho. Isimiso senkantolo sisungule izindlela eziningana zokuxazulula lezi zindaba futhi siqinisekise ukuthi izinkantolo zihlala zikhona kubo bonke abazidingayo.

Ukuhogela Nokungahambisani Nesimo Se - Forma

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zikhokha intela yokukhokha izimali zomphakathi, okungaba yisithiyo kubantu abanemali elinganiselwe. Ukusingatha lendaba, umthetho kahulumeni uvumela abantu abangakwazi ukukhokhela intela yokukhokha i-Fomapars, okusho ukuthi "ngendlela yomphangi." Izikhungo ezifuna ukukhokhela izimali zomphakathi kumelwe zikhokhe intela yemali eveza ukungakhokhi kwabo. Uma bevunyelwe, bangafaka icala labo ngaphandle kokukhokha intela yemali noma ezinye izindleko zenkantolo.

Inqubo ye-forma uluperis iqinisekisa ukuthi ubumpofu abubavimbeli abantu ukuba bangene ezinkantolo ukuze balwele amalungelo abo. Nokho, izinkantolo zihlola izikhalo ze-fomaupers ukuze ziqinisekise ukuthi bayavuma ukuthi basemthethweni futhi abathathi izikhalo ezisemthethweni. Lokhu kuvikela abamangalelwa emacaleni angenasisekelo kuyilapho kuvikela ukutholakala kwabantu abangenayo imali yokukhokha izimali.

Ilungelo Leseluleko Ezicabeni Zesigebengu

ISichibiyelo sesithupha siqinisekisa ilungelo lobugebengu lokuthola usizo lwezeluleko, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yathi abamangalelwa abanecala kumelwe banikezwe iseluleko esimisiwe ngezindleko zikahulumeni. Emacala obugebengu kahulumeni, leli lungelo lisetshenziswa ngesimiso somphakathi somlweli womphakathi nangeSishaya-mthetho somthetho we-Criminal Justice Act uhlelo lommeli. Abavikeli bomphakathi ababoshwe ngokusemthethweni bangabameli abamele abamangalelwa abakhonzi, kuyilapho abameli bezindawo zomthetho bebodwa bemukela ukumiswa kwecala ngesisekelo secala.

Ilungelo leseluleko liqinisekisa ukuthi abamangalelwa bathola izimpawu eziphumelelayo kungakhathaliseki ukuthi banamandla angakanani ukukhokha ummeli. Lokhu kuvikela kubalulekile ekulinganiseni kwesimiso somthetho wobugebengu futhi kusiza ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi abamangalelwa bangawasebenzisa ngokunenjongo amalungelo abo omthetho-sisekelo. Izinga lokumelelwa elinikezwa abavikeli bomphakathi nabameli bezindawo eziphezulu ngokuvamile, namahhovisi amaningi asebenzisa abameli abanolwazi abasekela ubugebengu obusemthethweni.

Incazelo Yezimo Nezikhungo Zomuntu

Abantu banelungelo lokuzimelela enkantolo kahulumeni, ukuvela kwe-pice ngaphandle kommeli. I-progassigation ivamile kwezinye izimo, ezihlanganisa amacala alwela amalungelo abantu ababoshwe, ukunxusa kwe-Social Security, kanye nezinye izindaba zokucwaswa kwemisebenzi. Nakuba ukuzimela kuyilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo, kunikeza izinselele ezinkulu ngoba izinqubo zenkantolo zikahulumeni ziyinkimbinkimbi futhi eziningi azikho ukuqeqeshwa okungokomthetho.

Izinkantolo ze-Federal ziye zasungula imithombo ehlukahlukene yokusiza abameleli abazimele, kuhlanganise nezikhungo zokuzisiza, izenza izikhalo, kanye nezinto zokwaziswa ezichaza izinqubo zenkantolo. Ezinye izinkantolo ziye zamisa nezinhlelo lapho abameli bokuzithandela benikeza khona usizo olulinganiselwe ekusebenziseni izithakazelo. Naphezu kwalemizamo, i-injini efaka izimpawu ezibhekene nezimo ezinkulu uma ziqhathaniswa nezikhungo ezimelelwe, futhi amacala azo acishe aphumelele. Lokhu kuqokomisa izinselele eziqhubekayo ekuqinisekiseni ukufinyelela kobulungisa obunenjongo kubantu abangakwazi ukunikeza iziqondiso ezingokomthetho ezicatshangweni zomphakathi.

Ubuchwepheshe Nezinkantolo Zanamuhla Ezihlangene

Ubuchwepheshe buye bashintsha indlela izinkantolo zikahulumeni ezisebenza ngayo, buthinta yonke into kusukela ekuqulweni kwamacala nasemacaleni, ekuqulweni kwezindaba nasekutholeni umphakathi emarekhodini asenkantolo.

Ukundiza Kwama - computer Nokuphatha Icala

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zasebenzisa isimiso se-Case Management/Electronic Case Falls (CM/ECF), esivumela abameli namaqembu ukuba bafake amabhukwana amaphepha nge-electal kanye nokwaziswa okungenayo kuyi-inthanethi. Lesi simiso siye sathatha indawo yokufaka iphepha futhi senza inqubo yokulisebenzisa isebenze kakhulu ngokuvumela ukugcinwa nokukhishwa kwezincwadi ngokushesha. Ama-Attorney angafaka amahele, ukudluliswa kweminxephetho, kanye nemishini emifushane nganoma isiphi isikhathi, futhi abahluleli neseluleko esiphikisayo zingangena ngokushesha kula maphepha.

Isimiso sika-Public Access to Court Electronic Records (PACER) sinikeza umphakathi ukufinyelela kumarekhodi enkantolo kahulumeni nge-Internet. Abasebenzisi bangahlola amacala, izibuko, kanye nokulayisha amabhukwana ukuze bathole imali encane ekhokhelwayo ngephepha ngalinye. I-PACTER ikhuthaza ukuba abacwaningi, izintatheli, nomphakathi uhlole izinqumo zenkantolo nokungena. Nokho, izindleko ezihlobene ne-PACER kanye nobunkimbi besimiso ziye zaholela ekugxekeni nasekubizeni futhi zicele ukuba kuthuthukiswe ukufinyelela komphakathi emibhalweni yenkantolo.

Ukuqhutshekiselwa Phambili Nezinkantolo Ezingokoqobo

Izinkantolo ze-Federal ziye zathatha ubuchwepheshe bokuthatha inqubo ekude, ukuthambekela okwashesha kakhulu phakathi nobhadane lwe-COVOID-19. Ubuchwepheshe be-video efaka imvume ivumela izinkantolo ukuba ziphathe amacala, izimpikiswano, ngisho nokulingwa okuthile kude, kunciphise isidingo samaqembu nabameli sokuya enkantolo. Lobu buchwepheshe buye bathuthukisa ukutholakala kobulungisa kubantu abahlala ezindaweni ezikude futhi buvumele izinkantolo ukuba ziqhubeke zisebenza phakathi nezimo eziphuthumayo.

Ama-project akude aphakamisa imibuzo ngemiphumela yobuchwepheshe engathi ithonyeni nasekufezekeni kwecala lenkantolo. Nakuba ukuthethwa kwevidiyo kungangcono futhi kuphumelele, abanye baphikisa ngokuthi abanakho amandla adonsela phansi asebenza ngokungenangqondo futhi bangase bahlulele amaqembu anokuthola ulwazi olulinganiselwe lobuchwepheshe noma lokufunda amanani. Izinkantolo ziyaqhubeka zihlola uma izenzakalo ezikude zifanelekile futhi lapho kudingekile ukuqulwa kwezeluleko ezisemthethweni ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuthi zilungile futhi kugcinwe isithunzi sezehlulelo zokwahlulela.

Ikusasa Lesimiso Senkantolo Yesifunda

Isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni sibhekana nezinselele eziningi namathuba njengoba sijwayela ukushintsha kwezimo zezenhlalo, intuthuko kwezobuchwepheshe, nokuxazulula izindaba zomthetho. Ukuqonda lezi zinqubo kusiza ekukhanyiseni iziqondiso zesikhathi esizayo zejaji likahulumeni kanye nezimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ngendima yalo emphakathini waseMelika.

Ukuphatha Icala Nemithombo Yokwahlulela

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziyaqhubeka zilwa nokunqwabelana kwecala namali elinganiselwe yokwahlulela. Nakuba iSishaya-mthetho sidala izikhulu ezintsha zokwahlulela, inani labahluleli alizange lihambisane nokukhula kwamacala abekwayo. Le mishini iholele ekuxazululeni izikhathi ezinde zokuqulwa kwecala kanye nokucindezela okwandayo kubahluleli ukuba balawule izikhungo ezinkulu. Izinkantolo ziye zasabela ngokuthatha amasu okusingatha amacala, ukukhuthaza ukuhlalisana, futhi zisebenzisa amajaji nabameli bezisebenzi ukusingatha izindaba zesimiso.

Kuqhubeka izimpikiswano ngokuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni kufanele zinyuke yini ukuze zisingathe amacala amaningi noma ukuthi iSishaya-mthetho kufanele sinqume ukumiswa kukahulumeni ukuze kuncishiswe umsebenzi wenkantolo. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni kufanele zigxile ezindabeni zikahulumeni ezikhethekile nokuthi amacala amaningi akhona enkantolo kahulumeni angasingathwa ngezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinikeza isivikelo esibalulekile samalungelo kahulumeni nokuthi kufanele kunikezwe imithombo eyanele yokusingatha icala lamanje.

Ukuzimela Nokwahlulela

Ukulondoloza ukuzimela kokwahlulela kuyilapho uqinisekisa ukulandisa okufanelekile kuhlala kuyinselele eqhubekayo. Ithuba lokuphila lamajaji kahulumeni livikela ukuzimela kodwa futhi lisho ukuthi amajaji ahileleka ekuziphatheni okubi noma angakwazi ukufeza imisebenzi yawo ngokuphumelelayo kungaba nzima ukususa. Ukunikezwa kwesilinganiso sokwahlulela noma iminyaka ebophekile yokuthatha umhlalaphansi ivela ngezikhathi ezithile kodwa abhekene nezithiyo ezingokomthetho neziwusizo.

Ukubekwa kwemithetho esemthethweni okwandayo kuye kwaphakamisa ukukhathazeka ngokuthi amajaji akhethwe ngezimfanelo nangesimo esiphansi noma ngokuyinhloko ngokucabangela imibono. Inqubo yokuqinisekisa yamajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaba nengxabano kakhulu, njengoba abakhonyane bebhekene nokucusumbulwa okukhulu nezimpi zobuhlanga. Lokhu kuphakamisa imibuzo ngokuthembela komphakathi ejajini nokuthi inqubo yokumiswa kufanele iguqulwe ukuze incishiswe.

Ukuxazulula Izindaba Ezingokomthetho

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zizoqhubeka zixoxa ngokuvela kwezimpikiswano zomthetho ezivela ekushintsheni kwezobuchwepheshe, ukuxazulula izimiso zezenhlalo, nezimiso ezintsha. Impikiswano ezihlobene nokuhlakanipha kokwenziwa, ukufihla imininingwane, nokuqashelwa kwezindaba zomphakathi inikeza imibuzo engokomthetho ebhalwe phansi enikeza imibuzo engathi ayibhekisi kahle. Izinkantolo kuzodinga ukusebenzisa izimiso zomthetho kanye nezimiso zomthetho kule mibandela emisha kuyilapho zithuthukisa izimfundiso ezisekelwe emthethweni ezinikeza isiqondiso emacaleni esikhathi esizayo.

Ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu, ukuphikisana ngamalungelo okuvota, ukugcinwa kwamalungelo abantu, nokugcinwa kwemithetho yokuthunyelwa kwezindawo, kuphakathi kwezindaba ezibalulekile okungenzeka zingene ezinkantolo zikahulumeni eminyakeni ezayo. Indlela izinkantolo ezizisingatha ngayo lezi zinselele iyakuguqula umthetho waseMelika nomphakathi izizukulwane ngezizukulwane. Ikhono lejaji lezwe lokuzivumelanisa nezimo ezishintshayo kuyilapho kugcinwa ukwethembeka ezimisweni zomthetho kanye nokubusa umthetho kuyonquma ukuphumelela kwalo okuqhubekayo njengegatsha elilinganayo likahulumeni.

Izenzakalo Eziyisihluthulelo Ngezakhiwo ZeNkantolo Yombuso

Isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni simelela isakhiwo esiklanywe ngokucophelela esilinganisela izinjongo eziningi: ukunikeza ukufinyelela ebulungisani, ukuqinisekisa ukusetshenziswa okungaguquguquki komthetho kahulumeni, ukuvikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye, nokulondoloza ukukhululeka kokwahlulela. Isigaba sabefundisi esinezingxenye ezintathu zezinkantolo zesifunda, izinkantolo zesifunda, neNkantolo Ephakeme sisakaza icala ngezici ezihlukahlukene zemisebenzi yokwahlulela, lapho izinkantolo zithola amaqiniso futhi zisebenzisa umthetho, izinkantolo eziphakathi zihlola imibuzo engokomthetho nesibonelo sesifunda, neNkanto ePhakakhulu zixazulula imibuzo ebaluleke kakhulu yomthetho kahulumeni nencazelo yomthetho womthetho.

Ukuqonda isakhiwo senkantolo kahulumeni kukhanyisa indlela isimiso somthetho saseMelika esisebenza ngayo nendlela amacala ngamanye angawuhlela ngayo umthetho olawula umphakathi. Kusukela enkantolo yesifunda lapho icala liqala khona ngokunxusa okungase kwenzeke enkantolo yesifunda naseNkantolo Ephakeme, isigaba ngasinye sifeza indima ebalulekile ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi ubulungisa buqondiswa ngokufanelekile nokuthi umthetho ushintsha ukuze ubhekane nezimo ezishintshayo. Izinkantolo ezikhethekile, imithetho engokwezimo, kanye nokusekela izisekelo zesimiso sombuso sokwahlulela konke kusiza esimisweni esikhona, naphezu kwezinselele nokungapheleli kwaso, okulokhu kulokhu kuyingxenye yezimiso zokwahlulela ezihlonishwa kakhulu neziphumelelayo emhlabeni.

Kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda uhulumeni waseMelika, ahileleke nesimiso somthetho, noma abe isakhamuzi esinolwazi oluthé xaxa, ulwazi ngesimiso senkantolo kahulumeni lubalulekile. Lezinkantolo zenza izinqumo ezithinta zonke izici zokuphila kwaseMelika, kusukela emalungelweni omuntu ngamunye nasebugwebeni bobugebengu kuya emagunyeni ebhizinisi nakahulumeni. Ngokuqonda indlela lezinkantolo ezihlelwe ngayo, indlela ezisebenza ngayo, nendlela ezihlobana ngayo, singaqonda kangcono indima yamajaji ekulondolozeni umthetho futhi sivikele izimiso zomthetho ezichaza umbuso wentando yeningi waseMelika.

Ukuze ufunde okwengeziwe ngesimiso senkantolo kahulumeni, vakashela i-United States Courts esemthethweni wewebsite, enikeza ukwaziswa okubanzi mayelana nenqubo yenkantolo, izinqubo, nemithombo yemfundo. Iwebhusayithi yeNkantolo [ inikeza ukufinyelela emfundisweni, izimpikiswano zomlomo, nolwazi ngemisebenzi yeNkantolo. Kulabo abanesithakazelo ekulandeleni amacala enkantolo engokomthetho nasekwenzeni amarekhodi enkantolo, isimiso se-PACTER [[FLT:]] .[FLT] inikeza ukwaziswa okuvela kuzo zonke izinkantolo. Lezi zinto zinikeza amathuluzi awusizo okuqondana nokusebenza nezimiso zokwahlulela.

Indaba Efingqiwe YeNkantolo Ebusayo

• Izinkantolo zezesifunda - 94 izinkantolo eziqulwayo zisebenza njengendawo yokungena emacaleni kahulumeni, ukusingatha kokubili izindaba zomphakathi nezezigebengu ngegunya lokuqala
• Izinkantolo zesifunda zokudlulisa amacala - 13 eziphakathini zihlola izinkantolo zesifunda izinqumo zenkantolo zamaphutha angokomthetho ngaphandle kokuqulisa amacala amasha
• Inkantolo ye-'FLT' - Inkantolo ephakeme kakhulu ephethe amajaji ayisishiyagalolunye asebenza ekumisweni kokuphila konke, inikeza incazelo yokugcina yomthetho kahulumeni nomthetho womthetho womthetho-sisekelo
• [[QURT:0] Izinkantolo ezihlukene - Kuhlanganisa izinkantolo zamacala okuwinwa kwamalungelo emali, inkantolo yentela, izinkantolo zezikhangiso zikahulumeni, kanye nezinye ezisingatha izinhlobo ezithile zecala
• Inqubo yokumisa - uMongameli we-consium noqinisekiso lweSigele sokumisa ukuphila konke ukuze kuqinisekiswe inkululeko yokwahlulela
• Appelet Review Amacala asuka ezinkantolo zesifunda aye ezinkantolo zesifunda futhi abuye angene eNkantolo Ephakeme ngokuhlola okuzimele
• Isimiso sePredent ---osezansi izinkantolo kumelwe zilandele isibonelo esiyisibonelelo ezinkantolo eziphakeme ezisebusweni bazo, zithuthukise ukungaguquguquki ekuchazeni ngokomthetho
• Imithetho ethathelwe indawo - Imithetho elawula inqubo yomphakathi, inqubo yobugebengu, ubufakazi, kanye nomkhuba wokulawula kuzo zonke izinkantolo zikahulumeni