Ukulingana kwamandla phakathi kohulumeni bakahulumeni bezwe nohulumeni kuyisici esichazayo sesimiso somthetho-sisekelo se-United States. Enshrined kuMphetho weSichibiyelo weshumi, amandla agciniwe angaphathiswanga uhulumeni kahulumeni noma abantu, lokhu okunamandla kunendima ewujuqu enkambisweni yokulungisa cishe yonke imikhakha yokuphila kweMelika. Ukuqonda ukuthi la magunya asebenza kanjani ekusebenzeni. Kuyinqubo yezempilo yezwe langempela. Kusukela kwezezehlakalo zempilo, imfundo, imithetho yendawo ezungezile, ukuvikela komphakathi, kanye neminye imimandla, kubaluleke ekuqondeni amandla ombuso wanamuhla kanye nemithetho eqhubekayo phakathi kweWashington, D.C.

Ukunakekelwa Kwempilo: UMthetho Wokunakekela Ongenakukhokhwa Nemingcele Yezigebengu Ezivamile

Mhlawumbe akukho mithetho efanekisela kangcono ukungezwani nokuguquguquka komthetho wombuso waseMelika kune-Affordble Care Act (ACA), eyasayinwa emthethweni ngo-2010. I-ACA yamelela ukwanda okukhulu kwegunya likahulumeni ezimakethe zezempilo, kodwa ukumiswa kwayo kwakuxhomeke kakhulu ezinqumweni zikahulumeni. Umphumela uyindida ehlukene kakhulu ukusuka kombuso ukuya komunye.

Ukwanda Kwe - Medicaid: Ukwehlukaniswa Kwezwe Ngesifunda

Ekujuleni kwempi kahulumeni ka-ACA kusempini kahulumeni eMédicaid. Umthetho wakuqala wawudinga ukubusa ukuze wonke ama-Medicaid athole imali efinyelela ku-88% yezinga lobumpofu obuphakathi kukahulumeni, uhulumeni uhlanganise izindleko eziningi. Nokho, isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ka-20 2012 i-National Federation of Independent Business v v. Sebelius zenza ukwanda ngokuphumelelayo ngokunquma ukuthi uhulumeni kazwelonke ungayisongela ukulahla yonke iMidia eshini eshicile. Lokhu kwakha igeleza igebe ehlala njalo: njengokungathi phakathi no-25, 41, kusho ukuthi izifunda ze-Columbian ziye zamukela ukwanda, kuyilapho ikhulu elingu-10 lingaliselangakho isilinganiso esingu- - 1.

Imiphumela mibi kakhulu. Ezindaweni ezinganciphisi njenge-Texas, Mississippi, ne-Alabama, izinkulungwane zezakhamuzi ziwela ekhaleni "lokwethulwa""", zihola imali encane kakhulu ukuba zifanelekele umshuwalense womuntu siqu owenziwe ngezimakethe ze ACA kodwa azifaneleki ku-Medicaid ngenxa yokuthi umbuso wazo wakhetha ukunganwebi. Lokhu kubonisa amandla okumelana nomthetho kahulumeni kungathinta ngokuqondile ukufinyelela kwezakhamuzi ekunakekeleni impilo, kubonise intengo yangempela ye-gationalism.

Isifundazwe SaseWaivers Nokubuyiselwa Kwezinto

I-ACA futhi inikeza ukuvumelana nezimo nge-Profthicr 1332 ye-AC, ivumela ukuba izame izindlela ezihlukile uma nje ihlangabezana nezindinganiso zikahulumeni. Ezinye izifundazwe, njenge-Alaska ne-Oregon, ziye zasebenzisa iziphakamiso zokufaka izinhlelo ezisekelwe kuhulumeni ezilula ezincitshiswe kuhulumeni. Ezinye, njengamaMassachusetts, zakhelwe phezu kwe-ACA plane ngezindlela zazo zokulungisa impilo. Lezi zibonelo zibonisa ukuthi amandla kahulumeni angahlala ngokusungulwa kwe-projectal ye-ommental-mediction-media yezwenu--net-stion.

Ukuze ufunde okwengeziwe ekuhloleni kobungako bezempilo, bheka i- Kaiser Family Foundation yemedicaid enwebekayo kanye ne CMS Ingxenye ye-1332%'ukwaziswa kwe-auser +.

Imfundo: Izindinganiso Zomphakathi Nokulawula Kwendawo

Imfundo ibiyindawo yempi yesifundazwe negunya likahulumeni, nemithetho kahulumeni ebeka izindinganiso ezibanzi kuyilapho amazwe nezifunda zesikole zilawula kakhulu izifundo, imali, nokulandisa. Ukusuka ku-No Child Let Behind (NCLB) ukuya ku-All Scheeds Act (ESA) ngo- 2015 kwaphawula ukushintshela emuva ngamabomu ekubuyiseleni amandla emuva ezifundazweni.

Wonke Umfundi Uphumelelayo Enzweni (Essa)

I-ESSA yathatha indawo yesimiso esiphezulu sokulandisa se-NCLB ngesimiso esinikeza inkululeko eyengeziwe yokuhlela amapulani abo entuthuko esikoleni, ukubeka imigomo yemfundo, nokunquma indlela yokulinganisela ukusebenza kwesikole. Nokho, umthetho usadinga izifunda zokuhlola abafundi minyaka yonke ekufundeni nasemabangeni angu-3-8 futhi kanye nasesikoleni esiphakeme, nokuthola nokungenela ezikoleni eziphansi kakhulu. Ukuxhasa kwemfundo kuxhomeke ekuhlolweni uhulumeni ngalezi zimfuneko.

Ukushintshashintsha Kwendlela Ehlelwe Uhulumeni

Izwe liye lasebenzisa i-ESSA ukuvumelana nezimo ukuze liphishekele izinto eziza kuqala ezihlukahlukene. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Ohio yamukela icebo eligcizelela amazinga okuthweswa iziqu zasesikoleni esiphakeme kanye nokufuna umsebenzi, kuyilapho iCalifornia igxile ekuvaleni izikhala eziphelele nasekunciphiseni amazinga anciphileyo. Okwamanje, ezinye izifundazwe ziye zasebenzisa i-ESSA ukuze zivule ukukhetha isikole ngezikole zomthetho wezifundo zezifundo zesikole kanye nezinhlelo zokugunyaza izinhlelo, kuyilapho ezinye ziye zanciphisa ukuhlolwa okuvamile. Lokhu kuveza indlela umthetho owodwa wezwe ongaveza ngayo imiphumela ehlukene kakhulu kuye ngezingameko ezingoko zombangazwe nemfundo.

Ikhora Elivamile Nomfutho Kahulumeni

I-Common Core State Institutions, eyathathwa ekuqaleni yizifundazwe ezingaphezu kuka-40, yaba yindawo yokuhlasela kahulumeni nakuba yadalwa ababusi bezwe nabaphathi bezemfundo, hhayi uhulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni. Njengoba abaphathi bama-Obama babebophela i-Frace Phezulu ekusekeleni izimali zokuthatha "ikholege nezindinganiso zomsebenzi ezisele" (ezichazwa njengeCome Core), amazwe amaningi aqala ukuqonda ukuphoqelelwa kwezwe. Ngo-20, inani lamazwe ngamazwe a-Indiana, South Carolina, i-Oklahoma, kanye nabanye, (ngokuthiwakusetshenziswa kwe-Commome Corye futhi kuthathe indawo yezindinganiso zawo siqu. Lokhu kuqokomisa indlela i-partleves abheka ngayo amandla kahulumeni, ngisho nalapho kungaqondile, kungabangela ukumelana kwezwe.

Ukuze uthole ukuhlaziywa okunzulu kobuzwe bemfundo, bheka Brookings i-ESSA kanye nokusetshenziswa kwe-octive yezwe .

Ukubuyiselwa Kwendawo Ezungezile: Lapho I - United States Ihola Ne - Recedes Yamandla Kahulumeni

Isimiso sendawo ezungezile yindawo lapho izifundazwe ngokuvamile ziye zaqinisekisa ukuhola okungaphezu kakhulu kwezindawo zikahulumeni, kuyilapho ziphindisela futhi ekuphathweni uhulumeni. I-Ceac Air no-cle Water Act imisa izindinganiso zesizwe kodwa ngokucacile ivumela amazwe ukuba athathe isivikelo esiqinile. Le zakhiwo ziye zasiza amazwe ukuba abe yizikhungo zokucwaninga zokwenza indawo ezungezile ithuthuke.

Izindinganiso Zokuvumela Imingcele YaseCalifornia

ICalifornia inendawo ekhethekile ngaphansi kwe-Ceake Air Act: i-Oparct iyakwazi ukubeka izindinganiso zayo siqu zemoto, ezifuna kakhulu kunezohulumeni. Ezinye izifundazwe zingakhetha ukwamukela izindinganiso zeCalifornia noma ukunamathela ngemithetho kahulumeni. Kusukela ngo-2025, 17 futhi izifundazwe ziye zamukela izindinganiso ze-Fourgated of Colicia ed Edval Clean Cars, ezimboze cishe amaphesenti angu-40 e-U.S. imakethe yezimoto. Phakathi ne-Trump, uhulumeni wezwe wazama ukuqeda i-rapiter’s California futhi wasungula izinga elilodwa lesizwe elalula igunya likahulumeni. California, kanye nezinye izifunda ezingu-20, i-isuddiod, kanye nomphathi we-Biden kamuva wabuyisela i-oralchial. Le procentierne ye-warse-washiption engokomthetho wombuso wezwe.

Izisulu Zamandla Aphinde Avuselelwe Akahulumeni

Izifundazwe eziningi ziye zamisa isilinganiso sazo esivuselelwe sogesi (RPS), ezidinga imishini yokuphehla amaphesenti athile kagesi emithonjeni evuselelwe. IHawaii ihlela 100% kagesi ovuselelwayo ngo-2045; i-New York izisulu ezingu-70% ngo-2030; neTexas, naphezu kwedumela layo njengowoyela ne-gesi, ikhipha amandla omoya omningi kunanoma yisiphi esinye isifunda ngenxa yeRPS (kusukela ivunyelwe ukuphelelwa). Lezimiso zombuso ziye zaqhubela izinguquko ezimakethengiselwa phambili ngezinye izikhathi zemisebenzi kahulumeni, zibonisa amandla kahulumeni kahulumeni ukuguqula amandla esizwe.

Ukusebenzelana Nokushintsha Kwesimo Sezulu

Ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu kunikeza inselele enkulu kakhulu kahulumeni. Uhulumeni wezwe unegunya lokulawula ukukhishwa kwegesi eshisayo ngaphansi koMthetho we-Ceat Air (] Massachusetts v. EPA, 2007), kodwa umthetho wesimo sezulu kabanzi wezwe uhlulekile kaningi eSivumelwaneni. Ekuphenduleni, amazwe akha izintambo ezifana ne-Greenhouse Gastination (RGGI), umzamo wokubambisana phakathi kwezifunda ezingu 12 enyakatho - mpumalanga ne-Mphakathi ye-Atlantic ukucul-at-etamplis nokunciphisa ukukhishwa kwe-CO2 ezindaweni ezinamandla. Lokhu kunyakaza konyaka kuveza indlela okungagcwalisa ngayo inqubo uma isenzo sikahulumeni sikhona.

Ukuze ubheke incazelo eningiliziwe yezinyathelo zesimo sezulu sombuso, funda EPA's shorts as short reserver.

Ukuphepha Komphakathi Nokulawula Izibhamu: Umbuso Owehlayo Uyasondela

Ukulawula izibhamu kungenye yezimpikiswano ezihlukene kakhulu kuhulumeni waseMelika. ISichibiyelo Sesibili siqinisekisa ilungelo lomuntu ngamunye lokuphatha izikhali, kodwa iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ukuthi lelilungelo alilinganiselwe nokuthi imibuso ingabeka imithetho enengqondo. Umphumela uwukwehlukana okukhulu phakathi kwezifundazwe ezibeka phambili amalungelo ezibhamu nalawo abeka ukuphepha kwezibhamu kuqala.

Imisebenzi yeFrames kaHulumeni evimbelayo

Ezindabeni ezinjengeTexas, Arizona, neIdaho, imithetho iye yasheshisa ukususwa kwemingcele: ukuphatha ngaphandle kwemvume sekuvunyelwe manje, kusho ukuthi noma ubani ongaba nesibhamu ngokomthetho angasithwala obala noma asifihle ngaphandle kwemvume. Kwesinye isiphetho salokhu, i-California, iNew York, ne-Illinois ishaya imithetho efuna ukuhlolwa kwezentengiselwano zokuhlasela komuntu siqu, nokuvinjelwa kwezikhali, nezikhathi zokulinda ezingathi sína. IHawaii neNew York inezindinganiso eziphakeme kakhulu, kuyilapho amazwe amaningi aseNingizimu enezimfuneko ezimbalwa kakhulu ezingaphezulu kakhulu.

Izinqumo ZeNkantolo Ephakeme Nesilingo

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaba nendima enkulu ekuchazeni imingcele yamandla kahulumeni. I-Ditory of Columbia v. Heller (2008), iNkantolo yashaya iWashington D.C. ukuvinjelwa kwesandla, kodwa yaphawula ngokucacile ukuthi isinqumo asikwenzi ukunciphisa uhide lwemithetho yezikhali ekhona. Kamuva, [ku- [FLT]] Mcnald v. Chicago, iNkantolo yasebenzisa iSiphendulo sesibili ezifundazweni sidlula eGayini le-Gradimende. Isinqumo esigunyaziwe sigunyaza umthetho, isikhulu sezwe i-New York Rifle &Pol Association. [Brut] [222] [202], i-New Yorkd Coumeston, "iced, "irightss, isikhulu somthetho esinguliwe, sigunyaza umphakathi, isikhulu esinguliwe, isikhulu sezwe ka-so ngokomthetho, sinye isikhulu

Ukukhokha Intela Nobuzwe

Ngaphandle kwezindawo eziqondile ezimisiwe, ubuhlobo obungokwezimali phakathi kwezifundazwe nohulumeni kahulumeni buyithonya elinamandla. Uhulumeni kahulumeni usebenzisa impawo-in-aid . zombili zinikeza ngemithetho eqinile kanye neziphakamiso ezinikeza ukuvumelana nezimo ezingcono kakhulu − ukukhuthaza ukuthatha isinyathelo sikahulumeni ezindaweni kusukela ekwakheni imigwaqo emikhulu kuya empilweni yomphakathi.

Amaluhu Okusekela Imali

Isibonelo esidume kakhulu yinkathi yokuphuza yesizwe. Ngo-1984, i-Congress yadlulisa i-National Monter Age Adro, eyavimba izimali zomgwaqo omkhulu kunoma yisiphi isifundazwe esasivumela abantu abangaphansi kweminyaka engu-21 ukuba bathenge utshwala. Izwe lalingenasibopho esiqondile sokuzivumela, kodwa ukucindezela kwe-fiscal kwakunamandla kangangokuba zonke izifunda ezingu-50 zaphakamisa iminyaka yazo yokuphuza ngasekupheleni kwawo-1980. Lokhu kusebenzisa amandla okusebenzisa imali kuyindaba yencwadi ye "cococenivenicismism," lapho amazwe kumelwe alinganisele khona isimiso sokuzimela ngokuncintisana nokulahlekelwa kwe-R180.

Ukubusa Kwentela KoMbuso

I-Internet Freedom Act ka-2017 inegunya elikhulu lokubeka izintela zayo siqu − imali ekhokhwayo, ukuthengwa, impahla, nezindawo, kodwa umthetho kahulumeni ulinganisela ezinye izinketho zikahulumeni. I-Internet Freedom Act ivimbela izintela zikahulumeni ekungeneni ko-Internet, futhi i-Theax Cuts ne Jobs Act ka-2017 ikhiphe intela yombuso nentela yendawo (SALT) ku-R10 000, ngokungathiya ngokukhulu ukuhla kwezifunda eziphezulu zezintela njenge-California kanye ne-New York. Ingxoxo ye-SALT iqokomisa indlela umthetho wentela olawula ngayo ukulawulwa ngokuqondile.

Ukuqashelwa Ngokomthetho Nomthetho Wesigebengu Wesizwe

Impi phakathi kombuso nomthetho kahulumeni iyabonakala kakhulu endaweni yensangu. Kusukela ngo-2025, ama-24 ezwe lase-Washington D.C. iye yagunyaza insangu ukuba isetshenziswe ngokwendlela yokuzilibazisa, futhi amazwe angu-38 anezinhlelo zokwelapha zensangu. Kodwa ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni, insangu ihlala iyisici seShedyuli, okungemthetho ukusungula, ukusakaza, noma ukuba nempahla. Lokhu kudala ukuqina komthetho-mthetho-mthetho: imithetho egunyaza ngokuqondile imisebenzi ewubugebengu bamazwe.

Ukuhlakanipha Okunamandla Okusebenza Ngobunye

Bobabili abaqondisi be-Obama neBiden bamukela izimiso zokungaphazamisi, beqondisa abashushisi bakahulumeni ukuba basuse amabhokisi ensangu ezwe elinamacala akhona anezimo eziqinile ezilawulayo. I-Trump umlawuli wokuqala wezobujaji, Jeff Sessions, yasusa lesi siqondiso ngo-201818, kodwa iSishaya-Mkhandlu sasabela ngokufaka abagibeli be-appropriation (Isivumelwano seRohraccobach-Blumener) esivimbela umnyango wezomthetho ukuba usebenzise imali yokumangalela imfucucu. Lesi senzo somthetho sibonisa ukuthi uKhomishane isebenza kanjani ngokuhlola izinto eziphambili egatsheni, ivumela umthetho ukuba usebenze naphezu kokuvinjelwa kukahulumeni.

Nokho, ukungaqiniseki komthetho kuyaqhubeka. Amabhange alokhu engathandi ukusebenzisa amabhizinisi ensangu asemthethweni ngoba afaka engozini yokukhokha imali ekhokhwayo. Amabhizinisi awanakulahla izindleko ezivamile zentela zikahulumeni ngenxa ye-IRS Language 280E. Lezi zithiyo ezisebenzayo zibonisa imingcele yokuzimela uhulumeni uma umthetho kahulumeni ukhona. Amabhizinisi nabathengi, igebe phakathi kombuso nomthetho kahulumeni lidala imakethe empunga engenakukhokhwa futhi engalawulwa ngokugcwele.

Ukuphoqelelwa Kwabantu Ukuba Bahlukane: Imithetho Yabefundisi Nembubhiso

Ukufuduka kuyindawo lapho uhulumeni kahulumeni unamandla amakhulu omthetho-sisekelo, kodwa izifundazwe ziye zaqinisa khona igunya lazo, ikakhulukazi lapho kungekho khona inguquko kahulumeni ebanzi. "Idolobha laseSanctuary" ne "sifundazwe esingumqalisi" izinqubo ezilinganisela ukubambisana komthetho neziphathimandla zezezethumbu zikahulumeni."

Izwe Nokumelana Nendawo

Izwe elinjengeCalifornia ne-Illinois liye lamisa imithetho evimbela amaphoyisa nezikhulu ukuba zibuze ngesikhundla sokufuduka noma ukuvalela abantu abasekelwe ezindaweni eziphethe ababamba ukufuduka zikahulumeni. Izikhulu zeTrump zafuna ukujezisa lezi zindawo ngokugodla imvume kahulumeni, kodwa izinkantolo zivale kakhulu lemizamo. United States v. California [2017], inkantolo yesifunda yashaya izingxenye zemithetho yethempeli laseCalifornia kuyilapho isekela abanye, ibonakalisa ukuyinkimbinkimbi kwemingcele engokomthetho. I-Biden ithatha ukungenela okungokomthetho okwengeziwe, kodwa umbangongongongongongongo eqhubeka imangalelwe ngokwezombangazwe.

Amaphoyisa oMbuso

Nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqinisekisa ngokuphindaphindiwe ukuphakama kukahulumeni ngenxa yokufuduka ( Arizona v. United States, 2012), iye yaqaphela futhi ukuthi amaphoyisa agcina amandla okuphepha komphakathi. I-United States ayinakwenza izinhlelo zayo zokuqinisekisa ukugcinwa kwezindawo zokufuduka, kodwa inganquma ukuthi iyakwazi kanjani ukunikeza imithombo yendawo indawo. Lokhu kushiya indawo yokulwa okuqhubekayo, njengoba amazwe ehamba emgqeni phakathi kokubambisana nomthetho womphakathi futhi evikela amalungelo ezakhamuzi ezingagunyazwangagunyaziwe.

Isiphetho: Ukusetshenziswa Kwamandla Okukhuthazela

Njengoba lezi zibonelo zezwe langempela zibonisa, ukulinganisela kwamandla phakathi kohulumeni bezwe nohulumeni akulona ilungiselelo eliqinile kodwa ukuxoxisana okuqhubekayo okubunjwe umthetho, ukubekwa kwecala, ukuthatha isinyathelo sokuqondisa, nombono womphakathi. Ekunakekeleni impilo, i-ACA yembula kokubili ukufinyelela kwegunya likahulumeni nokuzinzisa izikhundla zikahulumeni. Emfundweni, i-ESSA ifuna ukuvuselela ubuhlobo ngokubuyisela ukuvumelana nezimo ngokuzimela kokubusa kuyilapho ilondoloza ukulandisa kombuso. Isimiso sendawo sibonakalisa ukuthi ngokuvamile sisebenza njengamaphayona, sizimisele ukuphokophela phambili ngisho nalapho uhulumeni ungekho noma uhlehla. Futhi ezindaweni ezifana nokulawula isibhamu, insangu, nokuthutha, ukuxabana phakathi kwezwe nomthetho, kudala ukuphikisana okuqondile ukuthi izinkantolo kumelwe zizimisele njalo.

Ukuqonda lobubu mandla kubalulekile [1] hhayi kuphela kubenzi bemithetho nabafundi bakahulumeni kodwa futhi nasezakhamuzini ezibhekana nemiphumela yobuzwe ekuphileni kwazo kwansuku zonke. Imibuzo yezinga likahulumeni okufanele limise imithetho, nokuthi leyomithetho inganwetshwa kangakanani, kuyoba yingxenye ephambili yentando yeningi yaseMelika. Kubafundisi nabafundi ngokufanayo, lokhu kuhlola kunikeza inqubo ephazamisayo, evumelanisayo, futhi ngokuyisisekelo neyobuntu yokubusa isizwe esikhulu nesiyahlukahluka.