Isimiso somthetho sakha isisekelo sanoma yimuphi umphakathi olungile, sinikeza uhlelo lapho izingxabano zixazululwa khona, amalungelo avikelekile, futhi ukulandisa kuyaphoqeleka. Enkabeni yalesi simiso kunezinkantolo − (izikhulumo ezibekwa imithetho yokuchaza, izimemezelo, nokuqinisekisa ukuthi ubulungisa busebenza futhi bubonwa bukhonzwa. Kubafundi nabafundisi emlandweni, izakhamuzi, nezifundo zezenhlalo, ukuqonda ukuthi inqubo engokomthetho isebenza kanjani nokuthi iyini. Lesi sihloko sihlola inqubo engokomthetho, izigaba zemithetho, izimiso zesisekelo zezomthetho, izimiso zezeluleko ezilungile nenqubo efanelekile, nokuziphendukela kwemvelo okungokomlando okuye kwabumba izimiso zokwahlulela zanamuhla.

Indima Yezinkantolo Emphakathini

Izinkantolo zisebenza njengezindawo zokungathathi hlangothi lapho izimpikiswano ezingokomthetho zilungiswa khona ngokwemithetho emisiwe nezinqubo.

  • [ Ukumisa nokusebenzisa imithetho: izinkantolo zinquma incazelo yezimiso, iziqondiso, namalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo ezicini ezithile, kuqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho umisiwe ngokungaguquguquki nangokungaguquguquki.
  • Ukuvikela amalungelo anye:[ ngokuhlola kokwahlulela, izinkantolo zivikela inkululeko eyisisekelo − njengenkululeko yokukhuluma, ilungelo lokuqulwa ngokulunga, nokuvikela ekuboshweni ngokungenamthetho-mthetho, ngokushaya imithetho noma izenzo zikahulumeni eziphula iziqinisekiso zomthetho-sisekelo.
  • [ Kunikezwa ubulungisa: Izinkantolo zinikeza izisulu indawo yokufuna izisulu ukuba zifune ukuvuselelwa, abamangalelwa ukuba bafake isivikelo, futhi umphakathi ugcine abenzi bobubi benecala ngesijeziso sobugebengu noma amakhambi omphakathi.
  • [ Ukulondoloza uhlelo lwezenhlalo:[ ngokuxazulula izingxabano ngokuthula nangegunya, izinkantolo zinciphisa amathuba okuqapha ubulungisa futhi ziqinisa ukuthembela komphakathi ekubuseni komthetho.

Inkululeko yokwahlulela iyisisekelo salemisebenzi. Abahluleli kumelwe bakwazi ukunquma amacala asekelwe kuphela emthethweni nasemaqinisweni, ngaphandle kokwesaba ukuphindisela noma ithonya lamagatsha aphethe noma alawula imithetho. Amazwe anezigebengu eziqinile, ezizimele avame ukubhekana nokukhula okukhulu kwezomnotho, ukonakala okuphansi, kanye namazinga aphakeme okuzinziswa kwezombangazwe.

Izinhlobo Zamankantolo

Ukuqonda izinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zezinkantolo kukhanyisa ukuthi amacala alungiswa kanjani futhi yiyiphi inkantolo enegunya, yaziwa njengegunya elilawulayo, ukuzwa impikiswano ethile.

Izinkantolo Zommangalelwa Ovamile

E - United States, izinkantolo zenkantolo (ngokuvamile ezibizwa ngokuthi izinkantolo eziphakeme noma izinkantolo zesifunda) zisingatha yonke into kusukela ezimpikiswaneni zesivumelwano kuya ekumangalelweni. Izinkantolo zesifunda zesifunda zifeza indima efanayo emacaleni ahilela umthetho kahulumeni, ukwahlukahluka kwezindawo, noma i - United States njengeqembu.

Izinkantolo Zezigebengu

Izinkantolo zezigebengu ziphoqa amacala lapho uhulumeni umangalela umuntu noma inhlangano ngenxa yokwephula umthetho. Icala lobufakazi lisemshushisweni, okumelwe kuqinise icala ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo. Izinkantolo zezephulamthetho zisingatha amacala asukela ekwahluleleni okuncane (ukuphulwa kwecala okungathí sina) kuya emacaleni angathi sína (umbhikisho, ukukhwabanisa). Lezi zinkantolo futhi zengamela ukuqulwa kwecala, ukuqulwa kwecala, ukuqulwa kwecala, nokugwetshwa.

Izinkantolo Zomphakathi

Izinkantolo zombango zixazulula izimpikiswano phakathi kwamaqembu azimele − abantu abazimele, amabhizinisi, noma izinhlangano (ilungelo lobukhoma, izibopho, nezikweleti. Icala lomphakathi lihlanganisa izivumelwano, izingxabano zempahla, ukulimaza komuntu siqu, nezindaba zomthetho womkhaya. Umthwalo wobufakazi ezinkantolo zomphakathi uphansi kunasemacalani ezigebelele: ummangalelwa kumelwe afakazele ngecala ngobufakazi obuqanjiwe (cishe hhayi ngokungenabo). Izinkantolo zivame ukuhlanganisa izindleko zemali noma imiyalo.

Izinkantolo Ezikhethekile

Imibuso eminingi imisa izinkantolo ezinegunya elilinganiselwe lokusingatha izindawo ezithile zomthetho ngokuphumelelayo:

  • Izinkantolo zomkhaya:[ zisingatha isehlukaniso, ukuwinwa kwabantwana, ukusekela umntwana, ukutholwa, nokushaywa kobudlova basekhaya. Lezinkantolo zivame ukuthatha indlela yokwelapha, zigxile ezithakazelweni ezingcono kakhulu zezingane.
  • [ Inkantolo yeJuvenile: Isebenzelana nezingane ezimangalelwa ngobuhlongandlebe noma ezincike kunoma ezixhashazwe (ezingaqondiwe noma ezixhashaziwe). Ukugcizelelwa kusekuvuselelweni esikhundleni sokujeziswa.
  • [[[Umthetho:0] Iprojekthi izinkantolo: Phezulu ibone ukuphatha kwefa, izakhiwo, imikhumbi eqaphile, kanye nezindawo zokuhlola.
  • [ Izinkantolo zeTax:[ Ukuxazulula izingxabano phakathi kwentela nezikhulu zentela.
  • [ Izinkantolo zeBankruptic: phatha izicelo zabantu ngabanye noma amabhizinisi afuna ukukhululeka esikweletini ngaphansi komthetho wombuso owehlayo.
  • Izinkantolo zobuphathi: Izimpikiswano ezihlanganisa izinhlangano zikahulumeni, njengezinzuzo zokuphepha kwezenhlalo, ukufuduka, noma ukuthuthwa kwezindawo ezingochwepheshe. Lokhu ngokuvamile kuyingxenye yegatsha eliphethe kodwa kumelwe kunikeze ukulunga okungokomthetho.

Ukuba khona kwezinkantolo ezikhethekile kubonisa ukuyinkimbinkimbi okukhulayo komthetho wanamuhla nesidingo sabahluleli abanobuchwepheshe emikhakheni ethile.

Inqubo Engokomthetho: Izitebhisi Zomthetho

Inqubo engokomthetho (-okanye eyomthetho noma eyobugebengu) ilandela ukulandelana okuklanyelwe ukuqinisekisa ubulungisa, ukuba sobala, nokuphela. Ukuqonda lezi zigaba kusiza izakhamuzi ukuba ziqaphele ukuthi amacala aqala kanjani kusukela ekuqalisweni ukuya ekuxazululweni.

Ukukhononda Noma Ukusola

Kwecala lomphakathi, ummangalelwa ufaka isikhalo nenkantolo, achaze amaqiniso, isisekelo esingokomthetho salokho okushiwoyo, futhi ukukhululeka kwafunwa. Inkantolo ikhipha izicelo, ezinikezwa ummangalelwa kanye nalesosikhalo. Ecalani lobugebengu, inqubo iqala ngokuboshwa, ukuqulwa kwamacala umshushisi, noma ukumangalelwa kwejaji elikhulu. Ibhungamende elinecala kumelwe lichaze ubugebengu obumangalelwe futhi linikeze imininingwane eyanele kummangalelwa ukuze alungiselele isivikelo.

2. Ukusabela Nokuhola

Kumelwe aphendule ekukhonondeni phakathi nesikhathi esimisiwe, izinsuku ezingama-20 kuya kwezingu-30. Ukusabela kungavuma noma kuphike izinsolo futhi kungaphakamisa izaba zokuvuma noma ukuphikisa. Uma ummangalelwa ehluleka ukuphendula, inkantolo ingangena ekwahluleleni okungahlulelwanga. Ekwahluleleni okungahleliwe. Omangalelwe, ummangalelwa ungena esicelweni (enecala, engenacala, noma engekho umncintiswano) enkantolo.

Ukuthola

Ukuvubukulwa kuyisimo sangaphambi kokuhlola lapho bobabili bexoxa ngokwaziswa nobufakazi. Lesi simo sibalulekile ekuvimbeleni ukumangala ekuququlweni kwecala nasekuthuthukiseni izindawo zokuhlala. Amathuluzi okuthola ahlanganisa:

  • Imibuzo elotshiwe okumelwe iphendulwe ngaphansi kwesifungo.
  • [[IMITHO] Izimo: Ubufakazi bomlomo obuthathwe ngaphansi kwesifungo ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala, obuqoshiwe ukuze busetshenziswe kamuva.
  • Izicelo zokuveza: Isidingo samaphepha, ama-imeyili, amarekhodi ezokwelapha, noma obunye ubufakazi obungokoqobo.
  • [ Izimemo zokugunyaza: Izinkulumo omunye acela omunye ukuba avume noma aphike ukuthi uvale umpikiswano.

Ezimweni zobugebengu, umshushisi unomthwalo womthetho-sisekelo (ngaphansi Brady v. Maryland) ukudalula ubufakazi bokuqamba) obungase bukhiphe ummangalelwa noma bunciphise isijeziso.

4. Ukuhamba Kwangaphambi Nezindlebe

Ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala, noma yimuphi omunye angase athathe isigwebo ngezindlela ezizeqisayo acele inkantolo ukuba ixazulule izindaba ezithile. Izenzo ezivamile zihlanganisa:

  • Ukukhipha: Isubathi ukuthi ukukhononda akusho ukuthi inkantolo ayinagunya noma ukuthi inkantolo ayinalo igunya lokulawula.
  • [[UMTL:0] Umjovo wokwahlulela okufushanisiwe: ufuna ukubusa komunye umuntu ngaphandle kokulingwa ngoba akukho ukuphikisana kwangempela ngamaqiniso ezinto ezibonakalayo.
  • Ukuthatha Ilungelo lokucindezela ubufakazi: Ezicabeni zobugebengu, kuphikisa ukuthi ubufakazi butholakele ngokungemthetho futhi kufanele bukhishwe.
  • [Motion in Limine: ifuna ukukhipha ubufakazi obuthile ekungenjisweni lapho kuqulwa icala.

5. Ukuqulwa Kwamacala

Icala liyinqubo engokomthetho yokuqulwa kwecala lapho kunikezwa khona ubufakazi kumajaji noma kumajaji. Lenqubo ihlanganisa:

  • Izinkulumo ezivulayo:[ Amaqembu ahlela lokho ahlose ukukufakazela.
  • Ukunikezwa kobufakazi: oFakazi babizwa futhi bahlolwa (ukuhlolwa okuqondile, ukuphenyiswa, ukuphindela). Amabhukwana, izithombe, nemibiko engochwepheshe ingenisiwe embhalweni.
  • Izimpikiswano ezichazayo: Izingxenye zonke zifingqa ubufakazi futhi ziphikisa isinqumo esihle.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Imiyalo: Umahluleli uchazela abasizi bejaji umthetho osebenzayo.
  • I-Deliberation kanye ne-Verdict: Ijaji (noma umahluleli ekuqulweni kwebhentshi) lithatha ngamabomu bese libuyisela isinqumo.

Ekuqulweni kwecala, isinqumo kumelwe sihlangane ekuvumeni ukuthi iziphathimandla eziningi zinecala.

6. Ukugwetshwa (Izimo Zobugebengu)

Uma ummangalelwa etholakala enecala, isigwebo esihlukile sibekwa. Umahluleli ucabangela izici ezinjengobukhulu becala, umlando wobugebengu wommangalelwa, izinkulumo zokuhlasela kwezisulu, nokutusa okuvela kubaphathi abagwetshwayo. Izigwebo zingahlanganisa ukuboshwa, ukukhokhwa, ukugcinwa kwesigwebo, inkonzo yomphakathi, noma ukubuyiselwa.

Ukunxusa

Iqembu elilahlekelwayo lingase lidlulisele isinqumo enkantolo ephakeme. Izikhalo azikhona ukuqulwa futhi; zibukeza irekhodi lokuqulwa kwecala lamaphutha angokomthetho okungenzeka athinte umphumela. Inkantolo ye-appellate ingavuma, iguqule, ilungise, noma ilungise icala lomthetho omusha. Ezicabeni zobugebengu, ummangalelwa angase adlulise icala, kodwa abashushisi ngokuvamile abanakudlulisela isinqumo sokukhulula (isivikelo esiphindwe kabili).

Inqubo yokukhipha isigwebo ingadlulela enkantolo ephakeme kakhulu ephethe isifundazwe − njengenkantolo ephakeme kahulumeni noma iNkantolo Ephakeme yaseU.S. — ngokuvamile enqumayo ukukhetha ukuthi iziphi izimpikiswano okumelwe zizwe.

Ukulingwa Okufanele Nenqubo Efanele

Inqubo efanelekile isiqinisekiso somthetho - sisekelo sokuthi ukuqulwa kwecala kuyoba okulungile nokuthi abantu bazonikezwa isaziso ngezenzo ezithinta amalungelo abo nethuba lokuzwiwa.

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Lesi sici sidinga ukuba uhulumeni aphuce ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla kulandele izinqubo ezilungile.

  • Nothi: Omangalelwe kumelwe atshelwe ngamacala noma izikhalo eziwamangalelayo.
  • [ Uzwa:[ Ithuba elibalulekile lokunikeza ubufakazi nezimpikiswano phambi komenzi wesinqumo ongakhethi.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Umahluleli ongathathi hlangothi: Umahluleli kumelwe angabi naso iso socalulo futhi angabi nazimpi zesithakazelo.
  • Akulutho elulekweni: Ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seSithandathu e-U.S., abamangalelwa ezinkantolo zobugebengu banelungelo lokumelelwa ngokomthetho; uma bengakwazi ukukhokhela ummeli, umuntu kumelwe amiswe (bona Gideon v. Wainwr).
  • Ukubhekisisa: Ilungelo lokuhlangabeza ofakazi be-examine kanye nabamangaleli.
  • Inqubo eyimpoqo: Ilungelo lofakazi abangaphansi komthetho.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Umthetho we-Public: Ngaphandle kwezimo ezilinganiselwe, ukulingwa kumelwe kuvulekelwe umphakathi ukuze kukhuthazwe ukuba sobala nokusemthethweni.
  • [ Icala lejubane:[ Abamangalelwa becala banelungelo lokuqulwa kwecala ngaphandle kokulibala okungacabangeki.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Inqubo efanelekile engathiyiki imingcele yalokho uhulumeni angakwenza, kungakhathaliseki izinqubo ezisetshenziswayo. Ivikela amalungelo ayisisekelo njengokuvalelwa kwezindaba zomuntu siqu, umshado, ukukhuliswa komshado, nokuzibusa komzimba (ukungena ekuphazanyisweni nguhulumeni ngaphandle kokuba isithakazelo esiphoqelelwe nomthetho ulungiswe kancane. INkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. isebenzise inqubo engaphansi edingayo ukuvimbela ukuvimbela ukuvimbela inzalo (]Grisrold v.Connectic[FL:1]]) kanye nomshado ofanayo (

Izimiso Zokuqulwa Kovivinyo Ezifanele EziseMthethweni Wezizwe Zonke

Ilungelo lokuqulwa ngokulunga liqashelwa ezinhlanganweni ezinkulu zamalungelo abantu, kuhlanganise neSimemezelo Somhlaba Wonke Samalungelo Abantu (Artle 10) neSivumelwano seZizwe Zonke samalungelo Omphakathi Namalungelo Ezombangazwe (Artle 14). Lezizindinganiso zidinga izinkantolo ezizimele nezingakhethi, ukugconwa kobumsulwa, nelungelo lokudlulisa icala. Izinkantolo zezephulamthetho zomhlaba wonke, njengeNkantolo Yezigebengu, nazo zinamathela kulezi zimiso.

Umlando Wezenzakalo Zezomthetho

Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kokuqulwa kobulungisa nemiqondo yenqubo efanelekile kusekelwe ngokujulile emlandweni. Izenzakalo eziyinhloko ziphawula ukuqashelwa okuqhubekayo kwamalungelo abantu ngokumelene namandla ombuso.

IMagna Carta (1215)

Ngokuvamile ikhonjiwe njengesisekelo senqubo efanelekile, iMagna Carta's Chaputa 39 yamemezela ukuthi akukho muntu okhululekile ongaboshwa, aphucwe, noma avinjelwe ngaphandle kokwahlulela okungokomthetho kontanga yakhe noma umthetho wezwe. Lencwadi, iphoqelelwe iNkosi uJohane ngamaphini ahlubukayo, yamisa isimiso sokuthi inkosi ingaphansi komthetho [1] umqondo onzima ngesikhathi sayo.

I - English Bill of Rights (1689)

Ngemva kweNguquko eMhloni, i-English Bill of Rights yanqabela ibheyili ephakeme, izijeziso ezinonya nezingavamile, futhi yafuna ukuba iPhalamende livume izenzo ezithile zasebukhosini. Yaqinisekisa futhi ilungelo lokunxusa inkosi kanye nokukhululeka emabuthweni amile ngesikhathi sokuthula.

UMthetho - sisekelo waseU.S. noBill of Rights (1787-1791)

UMthetho-sisekelo wakha inkantolo ephethe amajaji anezimo eziphilile (Article III) futhi wamisa ukuphakama komthetho kahulumeni. ISigqi seMimandla yamalungelo, ikakhulukazi esesine, esesiHlanu, seSihlanu, nesesi-8h, izivikelo eziqinisekisiwe ekuphenyeni okungenangqondo, ukuzifaka engozini, futhi kwadingeka inqubo efanele, ukuqulwa kwecala okusheshayo nokungokomphakathi, kanye nelungelo lokunikezwa iseluleko. ISiphendulo seNguqulo seshumi Nesihlanu (1868) sandisa inqubo efanelekile yokuvikela izenzo zikahulumeni, inqubo eyayaziwa ngokuthi i-Complition.

Amacala Aphakeme Enkantolo

Izinqumo eziningana zeNkantolo Ephakeme yase - United States ziye zandisa amalungelo okuqulwa kwecala afanele:

  • [[NTL:0] Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Kudingeka amaphoyisa ukuba azise abasolayo ngamalungelo abo okuthula nokuba nommeli abekhona phakathi nokuphenywa kwemvume.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): waqinisekisa ilungelo lokunikeza izigebengu ezikhoseleni zikahulumeni izigebengu ezinecala, ngisho noma bengakwazi ukuthenga ummeli.
  • [FLT][1] Brady v. Maryland (1963): Ibhalwe ukuthi abashushisi baveza ubufakazi bokuvikela.
  • [FLT]] Batson v. Kentucky (1986): Izinselele ezicishiwe ezisekelwe kuphela ehlazweni noma ebulilini.
  • [FLT] Taylor v. Louisiana Ifunekayo ukuba amadamu amajaji amelele isiqephu esibonisa ububanzi bomphakathi.

Intuthuko Yomhlaba Wonke

Ngemva kweMpi Yezwe II, iNuremberg Trials yamisa ukuthi abantu bangalandisa ngobugebengu obuye baquliswa isintu nokuthi izindinganiso zokuqulwa kwecala ezilungile ziyasebenza ngisho nasenkantolo yomhlaba wonke.

Ukubaluleka Kwemfundo Engokomthetho

Isazi sezakhamuzi esinolwazi sibalulekile ekusebenzeni kwesimiso somthetho wentando yeningi. Imfundo engokomthetho ihlomisela abantu ngolwazi ukuze bavikele amalungelo abo, baqonde imithwalo yemfanelo, futhi bahileleke ekuphileni komphakathi. Izinzuzo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa:

  • Ukuqonda isakhiwo sesimiso senkantolo: Ukwazi ukuthi yiliphi inkantolo elisingatha uhlobo lwecala elisiza abantu ukuba baqondise izingxabano futhi bafumane amakhambi ngokuphumelela kakhulu.
  • Ukufunda ngamalungelo angokomthetho nesivikelo: ukujwayelana nesiqinisekiso somthetho-sisekelo, inkululeko yomphakathi, nenqubo yobugebengu kunika abantu amandla okuqaphela ukwephulwa nokufuna iziphetho.
  • Ukucubungula ukucabanga okugxekayo namakhono angokwesayensi: Ukuhlolwa komthetho kufundisa ukucabanga okunengqondo, ukuhlolwa kobufakazi, nekhono lokwakha izinkulumo ezithonyayo, qhano oluyigugu kunoma yimuphi umsebenzi.
  • [ Ukuqinisekisa umphakathi:[ Ukuqonda izinqubo zomthetho kukhuthaza ukuthatha isinyathelo somsebenzi wokwahlulela, ukuvota kwabazokwahlulela, nokugunyaza izinguquko ezingokomthetho.

Kuthisha, ukuhlanganisa izihloko zomthetho nomlando nezincwadi zemfundo zamuva kusiza abafundi ukuba bahlanganise izimiso ezingekho ngokomthetho-sisekelo ezicatshangelweyo nezenzakalo zamanje. Imivubukulo enjenge Faceral judiary’s Educational Outformation[ ne-[FLT] Institute yolwazi eCornell Law School inikeza izinto ezifinyelelekayo.

Izinselele Zesikhathi Esizayo Zokulingwa Okufanele

Naphezu kwamakhulu eminyaka entuthuko, ukuqulwa okulungile kubhekene nezinsongo eziqhubekayo. Ukugqunywa kwemililo, ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga esimisweni sobulungisa, ukungameleli okungokomthetho kwabampofu, nokusetshenziswa kwezicelo zokuxoxisana (okunganqunywa amaphesenti angaphezu kuka-90 ezigebengu eU.S.) kungalulaza inqubo efanele. Ezikhulwini zempoqo, izinkantolo zivame ukusetshenziswa njengamathuluzi okucindezela, ngaphandle kokuzibusa. Ukuvela kobufakazi bezesayensi nokuqapha kuphakamisa imibuzo emisha mayelana nokungafihliwe, ukucushwa kwecala, nokulunga kobufakazi.

Imizamo yokuxazulula lezinselele ihlanganisa ukuthatha izinyathelo zokusekela ukuvikela umphakathi ngemali, ibheyili yokulungisa izindleko, ukuhlukahluka kwezindlela zobuchwepheshe ukuze kwandiswe ukubonakala kwenkantolo. Izinhlangano zomhlaba wonke njenge-International Commission of Jurists[[FLT: 1] zihlola ukukhululeka kokwahlulela emhlabeni wonke futhi zisekela izinguquko ezingokomthetho.

Isiphetho

Izinkantolo nezinqubo ezingokomthetho azizona nje izinqubo ezingokwesiko; zihlanganisa ukuzinikela komphakathi ebulungisani, ukulingana, nokubusa umthetho. Ngokuqinisekisa ukulingwa okulungile nokusekela inqubo efanelekile, isimiso somthetho sivikela isithunzi somuntu ngamunye futhi sigcine isivumelwano somphakathi. Uhambo olungokomlando ukusuka eMagna Carta ukuya emishinini yamalungelo abantu yanamuhla lubonisa isibopho esiqhubekayo .[1] kanti futhi kusenjalo kungakaphelela kubulungisa. Kubafundi nabafundisi, ukuqonda inqubo nezimiso zalesimiso akuyona inqubo yemfundo kodwa kuyimfuneko yezezenhlalakahle. Njengezakhamuzi zesikhathi esizayo, bayozuza ifa le sibopho sokuvikela lezi zinhlangano ngokukhukulibala nokusekela isimiso sobulungisa esiphila ngokuvumelana nezimiso zaso.