Ifilosofi yomthetho womthetho we-prime, ukuthi amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo kufanele achazwe ngokwencazelo yawo yokuqala yomphakathi ngesikhathi sokusetshenziswa kwe-ratiation, iye yaba amandla alawulayo emcabangweni wezomthetho waseMelika − ikakhulukazi phakathi kwenhlangano esemthethweni ebambelele kakhulu. Abasekeli baphikisa ngokuthi inqanda abahluleli, inhlonipho ngenqubo yentando yeningi, futhi ilondoloza umthetho wezomthetho. Kodwa kukho konke ukunxusa kwayo komthetho wesigungulo, ukusebenzisa ukusungula ezindabeni zomphakathi kwaveza ukungezwani okujulile nokuphikelelayo. Imibuzo yanamuhla ethinta imfihloza imibandela enzima engokobuntu, amalungelo angokokwezentengiselwano, amalungelo okuzalana, nobulungisa bezinhlanga obungabonwa ngokuqondile ngasekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi elinesishiyagalombili, futhi ingenzeki inguquko yasekuqaleni kulezindaba. Lesi sihloko sihlola izinselele ezinkulu lapho sizama ukusebenzisa ukuthuthukisa indlela yokuqala yezenhlalo, ukuhlola izibalo zezehlulelo, ukubheka ukuthatha izinquno zokwahlulela, ukuthi inguququququ zikhona yini ezinzisiwe ngaphandle komthetho.

Ukuqonda Ukudalula

Kubukho ubufundisi obulula, obuthi umbhalo woMthetho-sisekelo kufanele unikezwe incazelo owawunayo lapho uthathwa. Leyo ncazelo ilungisiwe; ayiguquki ngokushintsha umbono womphakathi noma izintando zokwahlulela. Kunezikole ezimbili ezinkulu phakathi nomthetho wokuqala: inhloso yokuqala[, ebheke ezinhlosoni ezisekelwe ezicingweni zomthetho we-framers ne-ratifiers, futhi eziqondiswe kakhulu yincazelo yomphakathi yomphakathi [[, egxile ekuqondeni umuntu onengqondo ngalesosikhathi aqonde ngayo umbhalo. I-Genestrist, elwe nguMahluleli ka-Anton Scialsalcine, iye yaba yinguquko enethonya kakhulu ku-jume.

Ukuvela kobuKhomanisi kwakuyindlela yokusabela ngokwengxenye ngokumelene nokuzifaka kombono wokuzitika kweWarren neBurger Courts, okukholelwa ukuthi abakholelwa ekuthatheni izinkolelo zezenkolo abaningi baqamba amalungelo amasha (njengelungelo lokukhipha isisu Roe v. )) ngaphandle kokuthatha incazelo esobala. Abaqondisi bemfundiso baphikisa ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo uyincwadi esemthethweni, hhayi isidalwa esiphilayo, futhi leyo yindlela yokwahlulela − futhi ayiyona indlela efanele yokuguqula umthetho-mthetho-. Lokhu kubeka umthetho umthetho ukulungiswa kombhalo kunikeza umthetho ocacile: abahluleli kumelwe basebenzise incazelo yokuqala, ngisho noma leyo ncazelo iholela ekuphumeleni kwabo.

Naphezu kokuqina kokuhlakanipha kwayo, ukuqamba kwayo ibhekene nenselele eyisisekelo: uMthetho-sisekelo wabhalelwa umphakathi ongasakho. Incazelo yokuqala yamagama afana “inkululeko yokukhuluma nesijeziso esingavamile,” noma“ isivikelo esilinganayo semithetho” kumelwe sisetshenziswe ebucikweni obungakaze bubonwe nakuzo zonke izimo zezenhlalo − kusukela kuyi-Internet kanye nasekuhlolweni kwezakhi zofuzo ezihlala abantu abanomzali oyedwa kanye nemishadoba efanayo. Igebe phakathi kweshumi elinesishiyagalombili neshumi nane lekhulu lokuqala neqiniso lidala lidala ukushukuma kwento ekhona umuntu wokuqala okumelwe abhekane nayo.

Izinselele Ekusingatheni Izinkinga Zezenhlalo Zanamuhla

Uma ukuqamba phambili kubhekwa njengemibuzo yezenhlalo yamanje, kuba nobunzima obuningana obuhlukile. Lezi zinselele azizona nje izimfundo; zilawula imiphumela yezenzo eziphambili futhi zithonye ukufaneleka kokwahlulela emehlweni omphakathi.

Ukulinganiselwa Kwemibandela Yomlando

UMthetho-sisekelo wabuthelwa ngo-1787, futhi i-Bill of Rights yawo yagunyazwa ngo-1791. Izwe labasunguli laliyi-grarian, ikakhulukazi emaphandleni, futhi linezikhundla eziqinile. Ubugqila babungokomthetho, abesifazane babengenawo amalungelo ezombangazwe, futhi umqondo wokuzifunela izinto zomuntu siqu njengoba siqonda ukuthi awukho. Ukuchaza kobuqaba ngokuvamile kudinga ukuba abahluleli bazifake emphakathini, ezomnotho, nasezimweni ezingokomthetho zangasekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi elinesishiyagalombili leminyaka (ikhulu leshumi elinesishiyagalombili) umsebenzi onzima nongaqondakali.

Cabangela unqanyulo lweSichibiyelo se-Eighth oluthi “isijeziso sokufa nesijeziso esingavamile.” Incazelo yokuqala kungenzeka ukuthi ibhekisele ezijezisweni ezazilahlwa kabanzi ngaleso sikhathi, njengokudweba nokuthatha ikota, noma izijeziso ezingafani nale nqubo. Kodwa ingabe leyo nkathi yokuqala eqondayo ivimbela ukubulawa kwentsha, noma ukusetshenziswa kwesigwebo sokufa esibeka izingozi zobuhlungu obukhulu? Abadali baye bahlukanisa kulemibuzo, ngokuphikisa ngokuthi incazelo yokuqala ibanzi ngokwanele ukuba ihlanganise izindinganiso ezisekelwe ngaphansi kwesimiso esifanayo, kuyilapho abanye begcizelela ukuthi incazelo iqine ku - 1791. Lokhu kuveza incazelo engokokubuza komlando? [5] isithembiso sokubuza kokuqala, iziphendumiso.

Ukushintsha Imikhuba Yomphakathi

Enye yezindlela eziphikelela kakhulu zobuProfethi bokuqala ukuthi ayinakuveza ukushintsha okuyisisekelo kokuqonda okungokokuziphatha nokungokokuziphatha. Lapho iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo sagunyazwa ngo-1868, abakhiqizi bemikhumbi cishe babengahlosile ukuvikela umshado oxubile, umshado wezinhlanga, noma ukulingana kwabesifazane kuzo zonke izimbulunga. Nokho umphakathi wanamuhla ubheka amalungelo amaningi njengabalulekile ekuhlonipheni abantu futhi alinganayo. Umahluleli wokuqala waphoqelelwa ukunquma icala elinjengo berge b. Hodges[FLT:] (20) [20]] ubhekene nokukhetha okusobala: ufunde incazelo yokuqala yesivikelo esilinganayo, ukwenqaba, noma ukuthatha incazelo ebanzi.

[Ijaji elingu-3FL:0] lagcizelela ukuthi iningi lalingenaso isisekelo sokubusa kwalo. Nokho, uMahluleli Scalia waphikisa ngezizathu zakuqala, waphikisa ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo awudingi umshado oxubile nokuthi isinqumo kufanele sishiyelwe enqubweni yentando yeningi. IJaji uRoberts lagcizelela ukuthi iningi lalingenaso “isisekelo sombhalo” sokubusa kwalo. Nokho, liholwa nguMahluleli Kannedy, waphikisa ngokuthi i-“liberborth” evikezelwe yiSinyundezelo se-14thth sidlulele ekukhetheleni komuntu siqu esihlonipheni somuntu siqu.[as] lisho ukuthi ukuqondwa okusekelwe ekuqondeni kakhulu kwezimiso eziqondile ezingaphansi kokusetshenziswa kwalo ngokomlando. Lokhu kuphikisana phakathi kwendlela yokuqala nokuphila komthetho wezomthetho wezomthetho womphakathi, njengoba kusebenza ngokuqinile, ngisho nangokwesiko, lapho kusetshenziswa ngisho nangokwesiko, kumaqembu amaqembu angoko.

Ubuchwepheshe Nenguquko Yesayensi

Abaqaphi be-flameter babengangacabangi ukuthi bayakwazi ukuqamba ucingo, ukuqaphela ubuso, noma ukugcina ukwaziswa okukhulu. ISichibiyelo sesine sivikela “ukuphenya okungenangqondo nokuquleka,” kodwa ukusebenzisa leyondinganiso ekuhloleni kwamanani kudinga uhlobo lwenguqulo esunduza imingcele e-ronast. California [2014] (2014, iNkanto ePhakathi yeNkathi Ephakeme ibambelele ukuthi amaphoyisa ngokuvamile adinga isiqinisekiso sokuhlola ucingo olubanjwa phakathi kokuboshwa. Nakuba amaJaji afinyelela ukuvumelana, ukuhlehlela kwawo. Ukusondela kokuqala kungabuza ukuthi abasunguli bangawa kanjani amaphepha azimele nobufakazi obungokoqobo, kodwa ukulinganiswa. Umthetho u-Alito, ngokuvamile ulwelwane nomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho wakuqala, umele ulwele ukumelana nomthetho womthetho womthetho wanamuhla owenziwe ngokuphambene kwemithetho yanamuhla.

Izazi zoqobo ziye zahlongoza izindlela ezihlukahlukene zokuthi “ziguqulela” izimiso zokuqala kumongo wanamuhla . kodwa lokho uMahluleli Scalia akubiza ngokuthi “imfundiso ephilayo ye-protomist". Inhloso ukuhlukanisa inani elingaphansi (umz., ukuvikela ekungeneni kukahulumeni okungenangqondo) bese iyisebenzisa ezimweni ezintsha ngendlela evumelana nokuqonda kwakuqala. Kodwa abagxeki baphikisa ukuthi ukuhumusha okunjalo akuhlukaniseki kuchazwa ngokwezincazelo ezingekhona nesiqalo ngoba kukhuthaza abahluleli ukuba bakhethe phakathi kwezindlela eziphikisanayo zokuchaza isimiso sokuqala. Uma incazelo yokuqala ye- “ukuphenya okunengqondo” isekelwe ekuphakaleni okungokoqobo kwekhulu le-18, bese besebenzisa leyo ndingawushintsha kakhulu umthetho wokuqala.

Ukuthula Nezikhala Kulo MBhalo

UMthetho-sisekelo awunandaba nezindaba eziningi ezibusa ukuphila kwanamuhla kwezombangazwe nokwezenhlalo. Awusho lutho ngemibono yezombangazwe, izinhlangano zokuphatha, ilungelo lokuzifihla, noma isimo sombuso wezenhlalakahle wanamuhla. Lapho umthetho wezomthetho ungenandaba, abalandeli bawo bavame ukuhlehla belandela isimiso sokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo awulawuli indaba efuna ukubusa izishaya - mthetho. Lokho kungabangela ukuba intengo engakholeki emfundisweni, kodwa kungaveza imiphumela ephikisanayo nokulindeleka kwamanje. Ngokwesibonelo, ukungakhululeki komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo ngelungelo lokunakekela impilo kuholele izazi zokuqala ukuba ziphikise ukuthi akukho ngokomthetho wokusiza noma yiluphi uhlobo lohlobo, ngisho nasezimweni zokuswela. Injongo yokuqala ye-Octive Claus Claus cishe ayihlanganisi nezibophophono zesizwe eziningi. Kodwa izakhamuzi zanamuhla zithathe izibopho zokuvikela ezinye izibopho zezakhamuzi zezindawo zesizwe.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukungakhululeki kungasetshenziswa kabi. Uma uMthetho-sisekelo ungalawuli ukulawulwa kwezentengiselwano, izimali zomkhankaso, noma ilungelo eliphethe ngokwezimo ezicacile, abalandeli bemvelaphi kumelwe bathembele emalungiselelweni avamile − njengasekuqinisekiseni “Indlela kahulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni” noma ukwahlukana kwemibuso − okuziphikisa ngokwayo ngokomlando. Inkohliso yokuqiniseka iyaphela uma incazelo yokuqala ngokwayo ihambisana ngempela noma lapho imithombo ephikisanayo engokomlando iphikisana. Njengoba uProfesa Randy Barnett eye waphawula, ukukholelwa ekudalweni kokuqala kungaveza izincazelo eziningi ezinengqondo; ukukhetha phakathi kwayo ngokuvamile kushintsha izibopho ezingoko ezikhona ngaphandle komlando.

Izimfuno Zokwenza Isinqumo Sokwahlulela

Uma abahluleli bezama ukusebenzisa ubuKhomanisi besikhathi sokuqala ezingxabanweni zanamuhla zezenhlalo, lendlela ingaveza imiphumela ethatha kakhulu (ukuzisholo okusha) noma, ngezikhathi ezithile, ngokumangalisayo (ukugodlela izivikelo ezibanzi zamalungelo ezibhamu, njengaku i-diferical of Columbia v. ). [Iziphaka] [[FLT]]] [[FLY]], iNkathi ivimbele ukuvinjelwa kwezikhali ngenxa yokusungulwa kwemithombo, ukuthola ukuthi iSichimbiso sivikelekile umuntu ekugcineni izikhali zakhe zomuntu siqu. Abagxeki bekhomba ukuthi inzuzo yokuqala intengo ye-drouve"" i-Milve ihlelwe ngokulingana ne-customssssssss (ith Reviced) futhi ayikholeki kakhulu. Imithombo engcono kakhulu yezelelwe ukuthi ingeyena, ingakhonziwa kakhulu.

Enye incazelo esebenzayo yingozi yokuthatha isinyathelo sokwahlulela ngokuzimela. Abahluleli bakuqala bavame ukuthi abakwenzi ukunquma kodwa bamane baqinisekise incazelo eqondile yombhalo. Nokho ukucwaninga okungokomlando kuchaza ngokwemvelo. Ukuhlola ukuthi yimiphi imithombo enegunya, ilinganisa ukulandisa okungokomlando okuphikisanayo, futhi inqume izinga lobuningi lapho ibekwa khona isimiso sokuqala esihilela ukukhetha. Ngokwesibonelo, [Mcdondald v. Chicago[[[FLT]] [2010], iNkanto ehlanganisa iSigqi sesibili sokuHluleki ngokumelene nezifunda. Izazi ze-Origistry ziphikisana kakhulu ngokuthi ilungelo yini noma i-Immus Clausle noma i-'Eprojectives Clausssss (injini ewugqitshiswe ngomqondo oqinile) futhi noma kuqondana nokuqonda komthetho wokuqala we-Genetic (ist) eme) emeswomthetho oqinile ofana nomthetho oqinile.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuthatha izinto zobukhomba buqinile kungaholela emiphumeleni ephikisana nokuvumelana kokuziphatha kwanamuhla, kanjalo kululaza ukuthembela komphakathi enkantolo. Uma iNkantolo ibingamemezela ukuthi ukuvuma kwezinhlanga akunamthetho ngoba abahleli beSichibiyelo se 149th bezeNguqulo babengahlosile ukuvumela amakhambi ohlanga angenangqondo, noma imithetho kahulumeni enqabela ukuziphatha kobungqingili kuvunyelwe ngaphansi kwencazelo yokuqala ye- “libertiat,” ukuchayeka kwezehlakaniselwa kunganzima. Amagatsha ezombangazwe angaphendula ngokushaya indiva isinqumo seNkantolo, avinyeza ukubusa kwayo, noma avimbela ukuqedwa komthetho womthetho. Izikhulu zesonto kumelwe zilwe nokufaneleka kwendlela eveza imiphumela ebonakala igcwele ngokungafanele.

Ukulinganisela Ukuqamba Amathuku Nezindinganiso Zanamuhla

Isabela kulezi zinselele, izazi eziningi ziye zahlongoza imibono exubile ehloselwe ukulondoloza ukuqonda okusemqoka kobuQuqu kodwa ivumela ukuba kuvumelane nolwazi oluthile. Enye indlela evelele i- echaza ukuthi incazelo yakuqala i-pragmatic [, echaza incazelo eqinile kodwa ivumela ukuphambuka uma imiphumela ingeke ibekezeleleke noma lapho ubufakazi obungokomlando bungaqondakali kakhulu. UMahluleli uStephendlo, nakuba engeyena owasunguli mfundi, uye waphikisa ngokuthi abahluleli kufanele bacabangele izinjongo zomthetho we-mthetho-siseko nemiphumela ewusizo. Abanye abaqalayo, njengoProfesa John McGinnis, baye baphikisa ukuthi “izindlela zokuqala,” ezisekela ekuchazeni izindlela ezivamile zokuchaza ukuthi kwakukhona ngesikhathi sokusetshenziswa kwe-ratrat-ne.

Olunye umehluko yi- umthetho-sisekelo omuhle ovamile[, oboleka isibopho sobuProfethi be-oday kodwa ogcizelela ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo kumelwe uchazwe ngokucabangela izimiso zezombangazwe (njengobulungisa kanye nokulunga okuvamile) okunganciphiseki ngokwezimo ezilindelwe ekuqaleni. Nakuba lenkolelo-mthetho igxekwe njengokuvula umnyango wendaba yokwahlulela, isho ukuqaphela ukuthi ukuthatha izinto zokuqala okuqinile kungakwanele ukuba kube yisithako, umphakathi wanamuhla.

Mhlawumbe umzamo oxoxwe kakhulu wokuhlanganisa u-Creastism noshintsho umqondo we- “FLT:3] (ukwenza incazelo engokomthetho uma incazelo iphela). Ngokwezazi ezinjengoKeith Wightton noRandynett, incazelo yokuqala ishiya imingcele kodwa indawo ye-internact okumelwe igcwaliswe ngokucabanga okuvamile, isibonelo, nangokuhlela kwezombangazwe. Kulombono wokuqala, ukuchaza akuxazululi yonke inkinga yanamuhla; imingcele yemiphumela evumelanayo i-Keithton ne-Randynett, incazelo yokuqala ishiya imingcele kodwa ishiya indawo ye-internationalstion okumelwe igcwaliswe ngemiqondo evamile, isibonelo, nangokucushela ngokwezombangazwe.

Lendlela isho okuthile okungokoqobo. Ngokwesibonelo, ezimweni ezihilela ukuzifihla kobumfihlo, isazi sokuqala singaphetha ngokuthi iSichibiyelo sesine esiwumthetho owenqabela ukuphenya okungenangqondo siyasebenza, kodwa umbuzo wokuthi “ukungabi nangqondo” kusho ukuthini enkathini yobuchwepheshe ushiyelwa ekwakheni “‘ ukuvumela izinkantolo ukuba zisebenzise amathemba anamuhla ezindaba zomuntu siqu, izenzo zomthetho, nezimiso eziguquguqukayo. Umphumela awuwona umsuka wobuqalisi oqinile kodwa osekelwe ngokomlando oqaphela isidingo somthwalo wemfanelo wokwahlulela.

Ngisho nalokhu kulungisa, ukulinganisela ukusungula nezindinganiso zanamuhla kuhlala kunzima ngoba lezi ezimbili zingaba nokuphikisana okuqondile. Uma incazelo yokuqala ikhomba ngokucacile umphumela ophikisana nezindinganiso zokuqala zokuziphatha zamanje, ngokwesibonelo, ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga ekuqaleni akuthathwanga njengokwephulwa kwesivikelo esifanayo (bona [] Prevention v.[ imicabango, eyayivumelana ngokungaguquguquki nokuqonda kwakuqala) Brown.[FFFFF].[FFFF:5] Umlando womthetho womthetho womthetho kahulumeni uveza ukuthi ekugcineni iNkadedekile [FLT] futhi uzama ngisho nokuzama ukuyekelela komthetho wokuqala.

Isiphetho

Izinselele zokusebenzisa ubufandamentali ezimpindaneni zezenhlalo zamanje zinkulu kodwa aziyona ngempela inhlekelele. Ukukholelwa ekudalweni kwakuqala kunikeza isiyalo esiwusizo: kuphoqelela amajaji ukuba ahileleke embhalweni woMthetho-sisekelo kanye nomlando, futhi kubakhungathekisa ukumisa izindinganiso zabo siqu. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, indlela ayinakubalekela izikhawu ezichazayo ezivulwe ngesikhathi, ezobuchwepheshe, kanye nokuziphendukela kwemvelo. Abahluleli abazinikele ekufuneni ubuQapheli bokuqala kumelwe basebenzise lemingcele ngokwethembeka, ukuvuma lapho incazelo yokuqala ingaqinisekile noma ithule, futhi baqaphele ukuthi ukukhetha kwabo siqu kokuchaza kuyothinta imiphumela.

Ukuze ubufundamentali buhlale buyifilosofi yokwahlulela ethembekile, abasekeli bayo kumelwe baqhubeke belungisa le nkolelo-lwazi, ikakhulukazi ezicini zokwakha noguqulo lomthetho-sisekelo. Kumelwe futhi bakhulume ngokungagunci ngezindlela zokulinganisela − ukwamukela ukuthi ezinye izinkinga zamanje azinakuxazululwa ngokuhlaziya okungokomlando kuphela. Umthetho olinganiselayo, obheka incazelo yokuqala njengempicabadala ebaluleke kakhulu kuyilapho futhi beqaphela isidingo sokucabanga okungokokuziphatha nokufakwa kobudemokhrasi, kunganikeza indlela engcono kakhulu. Ekugcineni, impumelelo yendlela yokuqala ngeke incike emakhonweni ayo okunikeza izimpendulo ezizenzekelayo kodwa emandleni ayo okuveza i-jikelelo emithetho emithetho ethembekile futhi esabela esikhathini esidlule.

Ukuze ufunde ngokuqhubekayo ngenkathi yokuqala nezinselele zayo, bheka: statford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Fritan:1]; "Obergefell v. Hodges[[FLT:] [2011] ka-2011] imiqondo eminingi nephikisanayo[; i-[FLT] i-Domiganity" – Harvard Uhlelo loMthetho[FLT:]; [[FLT] ne[FLT] RYD], [incazelo yokuqala yoMthetho-Mthethombo]