Isingeniso: Isimemezelo Njengomnyatheliso Ongokomthetho

ISimemezelo se-Index sombuso we-Oversity singesona isikhangiso esisankondlo sezikhali noma isikhombi sezombangazwe. Siyimpikiswano engokomthetho eyakhiwa ngokucophelela eyathethelela ukwahlukana kwamakoloni aseMelika neGreat Britain futhi yabeka isisekelo sefilosofi sesimiso esisha sikahulumeni. Ngokuyinhloko sabekwa nguThomas Jefferson futhi sathathwa yiSecontineral Congress Congress ngoJuly 4, 1776, leli phephandaba lisebenza njengomthetho wesisekelo wesisekelo sobukhosi baseMelika. Imibono yalo eyisisekelo engokomthetho engokomthetho esekelwe ekwakheniseni, ubukhosi obuthandwayo, kanye nelungelo lenguquko ($at) ayizange ivele entweni ewuququququze ifilosofi yezombangazwe yaseYurophu, umthetho wesiNgisi, nemithetho ye-Anglist . Ukuqonda lezi zisekelo ezingokomthetho zibalulekile ekuqondeni ukuthi iSimemezelo seMpilo seMpilo sombuso se-Eyodwa kodwa futhi neSivikelo somthetho somthetho - mthetho - ngokomthetho waseMelika wonke.

LoluMemezelo luhlelwe njengokukhononda okungokomthetho okungokomthetho. Luqala ngamazwi ezimiso zokuqala, luthinta ukubekwa kwamacala okukhethekile kweNkosi uGeorge III, futhi luphetha ngokumemezela isimo esisha samakoloni. Lesi sakhiwo siveza isiko elivamile lomthetho wokuncenga icala: ukusho umthetho, ukuwusebenzisa emaqinisweni, nokufuna ikhambi. Ngokuphatha yonke lempikiswano njengendaba engokomthetho, abasunguli baguqula ukuvukela kweqembu labameleli babe isikhalo esinezimiso ezisekelwe ku "Izimo ezivamile zesintu." Lesi sihloko sihlola izifundiso eziyinhloko ezibekwe eSivumelwaneni, imvelaphi yabo engokolwazini, nokuhlola ithonya labo elihlala njalo emthethweni waseMelika nasebusweni.

Izimiso Zamalungelo Emvelo

Indinyana edumile kakhulu yesimemezelo igomela ngokuthi bonke abantu banikwe uMdali wabo amalungelo athile angenakuthathwa, ukuthi phakathi kwalawa kukhona Ukuphila, iNkululeko nokuphishekela injabulo. Lokhu akuyona nje indlela yokukhuluma; kumane nje ukudluliselwa komthetho wemvelo owenziwe yizazi zefilosofi ezinjengoJohn Locke, uHugo Grotius, noSamuel von Pufendorf. Kulelisiko, amalungelo awanikezwa yinoma yimuphi uhulumeni noma igunya lomuntu; azalwa abantu futhi akhona ngaphambi kokwakhiwa kwanoma yimuphi umphakathi wezombangazwe. Ngakho, iSimemezelo sithi lamalungelo angabantu angabantu ayengeniswa, noma athathelwa ngaphandle, noma athathelwe uhulumeni osemthethweni.

Isinqumo sikaJefferson se "ungwengwengwengwengweda yenjabulo" esikhundleni se-Locke's "imfanelo" sasiyindaba ebaluleke kakhulu ebaluleke kakhulu. Impahla yayiyindaba eyinhloko ye-Locke's SECOND Isivumelwano sikaHulumeni[[, kodwa Jefferson wafuna igama elibanzi, elifinyele, elifinyeze kakhulu elihlanganisa umehluko ogcwele wokuchuma komuntu. Emibhalweni engokomthetho, inkulumo "unyut of Hopective traise" iye yachazwa izinkantolo njengenkululeko yezomnotho, i-asbost, nelungelo lokuthatha imisebenzi engokomthetho. Nakuba uDeclation ngokwayo ngokwayo ingagunyazwanga ngokuqondile njengomthetho, amalungelo ayo emvelweni ephakeme ehilela amalungelo abalulekile, njengasekunxeba, ukunyuselwa ezinganeni, isibonelo sokulunga, [Fodk], [2] eSivume somthetho somthetho somthetho womthetho (194]).[3], ukukhombalo lwezinyuko]). "U

Ngokombono ongokomthetho, uhlaka lwamalungelo angokwemvelo lunikeza isiqinisekiso esiphelele sokulinganisela amandla kahulumeni. Uma amalungelo efa futhi engamukelwa, khona - ke noma yimuphi uhulumeni owephula ngokwesimiso ulahlekelwa ukuzisholo kwawo ukuba ngokomthetho. Lesi simiso saba isisekelo sokugcizelela kwesimiso somthetho waseMelika amalungelo omuntu ngamunye nenqubo efanelekile. ISivumelwano seNinth, esisho ukuthi ukuhlelwa kwamalungelo athile kuMthetho-sisekelo ngeke kuthathwe njengokuphikwa noma ukuhlukanisa abanye abantu, kuwukunanela okuqondile kwefilosofi engokwemvelo yamalungelo oMthetho womthetho.

Inhlangano Yezenhlalo Nemithetho Kahulumeni

Isimiso sesibili somthetho esiyinhloko siwukuthi ohulumeni bathola “amandla abo alungile ngokuvunyelwa yibo ababuswayo. Lena imfundiso yobukhosi obuthandwayo, esekelwe emfundisweni yesivumelwano sezenhlalo. Isivumelwano sezenhlalo, njengoba sasungulwa nguThomas Hobbes, uJohn Locke, futhi kamuva uJean-Jacques Rousseau, amaphasito ukuthi abantu bavuma ukwakha umphakathi wezombangazwe futhi banikeze inkululeko yabo engokwemvelo ukuze bavikele amalungelo abo asele. Ngaleyondlela uhulumeni uyilungu elithemba lamandla abantu, hhayi inkosi phezu kwabo.

ISimemezelo sisebenzisa lombono esimweni samakoloni: "noma isiphi isici sohulumeni esibhubhisa lezizinjongo, kuyilungelo labantu lokuguqula noma ukuwuqeda, nokumisa uHulumeni omusha." lokhu kumiswa kwelungelo lokuvukela akusona isimemo sokuzinzisa kodwa ikhambi elilinganiselwe elingokomthetho. Kudinga ukuba ukuxhaphaza kukahulumeni kube "isitishi eside sokuxhaphaza nokuthatha izintambo" esibonisa umklamo wokunciphisa abantu ukuba banciphe i-"absolute Depotistism"". Izazi zekolone zamazwe zamazwe zakhona zazingasakuqedisi zonke izindlela zokulungisa izimo . .

Kumthetho-mthetho wanamuhla, isimiso sesivumelwano sezenhlalo sibonakala edingweni yokuthi bonke abaphethe uhulumeni kumelwe bamiswe emfunweni obhaliwe obonisa intando yabantu. UMthetho-sisekelo uqala ngo "Thina bantu," hhayi "Thina Mazwe" noma "Thina Hulumeni," nenqubo yokuhloba ihilela imihlangano ethandwayo kunemithetho yomthetho kuphela. INkantolo Ephakeme ibambelele ngokuphindaphindiwe ukuthi ukufaneleka komthetho kuxhomeke ekuvumelaneni kwayo noMthetho-Mthetho-sisekelo, okuyisibonakaliso sentando yeningi yabantu. [18] Icala elinjenge [[FLT:]] umbhishobhishobhi ophakeme. [1] [i] [izenzo zegunyazwe] [FLT] [i] [FLT] [iv] [i] .Clovlson.[19] [isimiso somthetho-mthetho]

Ukuvumelana Nenkinga Yokungavunyelwa

Enye yezimpikiswano ezihlala njalo ezingokomthetho ezihlobene nesivumelwano sezenhlalo ukuthi imvume ingashiwo yini kunokuba icace. Abasayina izimemezelo bavuma ngokuqondile ukuba bazimele, kodwa izizukulwane ezizayo ziboshwe yimithetho eziyifa. Umthetho waseMelika unquma lokhu ngomqondo "wokuvuma": ngokuhlala phakathi kwezwe futhi ujabulele izinzuzo zikahulumeni, abantu babhekwa njengabavumele igunya labo. Lokhu kusekela imfuneko bonke abantu abangaphansi kwe-U.S. imibuso, kuhlanganise nabafuduki, abalalela imithetho yezwe nezwe. Nokho, ukugcizelela kweSimemezelo sokumiswa kwemvume yangempela kuye kwasetshenziswa futhi ngabalweli belungelo lokuvota nokulawula ngokwehlukana, bephikisa ukuthi ukufaneleka kwangempela kudinga ukuvumelana okuqhubekayo, nokuqhubekayo okulawulwa yimibuso.

Isigwebo Esingokomthetho Sokuzimela: Uhlu Lweziqu Zokholo

Ingxenye ende kakhulu yalesiSimemezelo iwumthetho wezikhalazo ezithile ngokumelene neNkosi uGeorge III. Lolu hlu alulona nje uhlu olungokomlando lwezikhalo; luwubufakazi obungokomthetho bokuthi amalungelo amakoloni aye ophulwe kangangokuba ukuvukela kwakuwukuphela kwekhambi elingokomthetho. Izikhalo zihlelwa ukubonisa ukuthi iNkosi yaphule igunya layo elingokomthetho njengenkosi engokomthetho futhi yayenze uzungu nePhalamende ukuze incishe amalungelo ayo angokwesiko njengeNgisi.

Izikhalo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa ukwenqaba kwenkosi ukuvuma imithetho edingekile, ukudilizwa kwayo kwemihlangano emelelwayo, ukuvinjelwa kwayo kokuphatha isahlulelo ngokwenza abahluleli bancike ekufuneni kwayo kuphela, ukuthatha kwakhe ingxenye yesine yamabutho emizini yabantu ngaphandle kwemvume, nokubekwa kwentela ngaphandle kokumiswa. Izikhalo ngazinye zihambisana nokwephulwa okukhethekile komthetho wesiNgisi ovamile, iMagna Carta, noma umthetho-mlawulo waseBrithani ongabhalwanga. Ngokwesibonelo, ukukhononda ngo "ngesidluliseli semikhumbi ezindaweni zangasese" kubhekisela ekunqanyulweni kwecala lecala lendawo, ilungelo eliyisisekelo eliyisisekelo ngaphansi komthetho ovamile. Isikhalo mayelana " nokuncishiswa kwezindikimba ezinkulu zebutho ezihlomile" phakathi kwe-Freances of R.[8]

Ngokombono ongokomthetho, ukusebenzisa kwesimemezelo kufeza imisebenzi emibili. Okokuqala, kubonisa ukuthi amakoloni ayezame ukufuna ukubuyisela izivumelwano ngezindlela zomthetho ``izicelo', izikhalo zomthetho, ukunxusa kwemithetho(ukuthi leyo misele iphelile." Lokhu kuyimfuneko yokusebenzisa ilungelo elingokomthetho lenguquko. Okwesibili, iveza indlela yokuziphatha yeNkosi eyaphula isivumelwano sezenhlalo. Njengoba uJohn Locke aphikisa, lapho umbusi ethatha indawo noma ukuphila kwezihloko ngaphandle komthetho futhi ezama ukuthatha imvume, ukuthi umbusi ungene esimweni sokulwa nabantu, futhi abantu banelungelo lokuzivikela.

Imfundo engokomthetho ehlobene nalezi zikhalo isasebenza. Ukusetshenziswa kabi kwamabutho amile ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa kwemithetho, ukuphazamisa ukukhululeka kokwahlulela, ukunqatshelwa kwecala yijaji, kanye nokunqandwa kwe-habeas corpus , kufana nokusetshenziswa kwezenzo ezayenziwa yi-U.S. uMthetho-sisekelo neSivumelwano samaLungelo ukuze kuvinjelwe. Ngokwesibonelo, iSichibiyelo sesithathu esinqabela amasosha asemadodeni ezindlini zangasese sisabela ngokuqondile kuleso sikhalo. Inqubo yeSichithi sesihlanu kanye nezimfuneko ezinkulu zejaji eliphethe i-jaji ezikhankanyiweyo mayelana nokuqulwa okungafanele.

Umphumela Omthetho WaseMelika Nokubusa

Isivumelwano esingokomthetho esingokomthetho saqala ngokushesha ukumiswa kohulumeni abasha nokwamukela ekugcineni iZiphakamiso zobukhosi obuvamile noMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. ngokumemezela amakoloni "Inkululeko ne-Independent States," lencwadi yachitha zonke izibopho ezingokomthetho zangaphambili eGreat Britain, kuhlanganise negunya lePhalamende nomqhele. Ikoloni ngalinye langaphambili kwadingeka ukuba liphinde libuyisele uhulumeni walo siqu ngokwesimiso sobukhosi obuvamile. Ngezinyanga ezimbalwa, iningi lamukela imithetho emisha ebhalwe ngokucacile ehlanganisa ulimi lweSimemezelo mayelana namalungelo emvelo. Ngokwesibonelo, iSivumelo samaLungu seSivumelwano samaLungelo (17766) samemezela ukuthi "wonke abantu bakhululekile futhi banelungelo elizisebenzelayo" angenakuphucwa yilungelo elithile eliyifaniswa nalo.

Ithonya lesimemezelo eMthethweni woBushinwa wase-U.S. aliqondi kakhulu kodwa lijule kakhulu. Umthetho-sisekelo awuluphindi ulimi lwamalungelo olungokwemvelo, kodwa udala uhlaka lwamalungelo alinganiselwe, ubala amandla athatha ukuba khona kwamalungelo emvelo akhona ngaphambili. Ukuhlukanisa kwemigomo yemvelo nokuhlola imingcele kuklanywe ukuba iSivumelwano soMasipala siphele, ukumisa uMahlulelo, ukuqinisekisa ukufaneleka kwasekhaya, ukunikeza isivikelo esifanayo, ukuthuthukisa i-Welfarelfare, nokuvikela izibusiso zeNquluko""""nezizathu ezisobala zeSimemezelo soMthetho-sisekelo. Ukuhlukaniswa kwamalungelo nokulinganisa inqubo kuklanywe ukuvimbela uhlobo oluphezulu, amandla okuhlambayo okulahlwa yizimemezelo.

Isimiso esiwumthetho esiqondile somthetho - sisekelo salesiSimemezelo yiSimemezelo seMicimbi Yamalungelo, esamukelwa ngo-1791. Isivikelo seSichibiyelo Sokuqala sokukhuluma, ukunyathelisa, inkolo, ukuhlangana, nokunxusa konke kuvikela amalungelo amakoloni ayewasebenzisela ukuphikisa ukubusa kwaseBrithani. ISichibiyelo Sesibili sokuthwala izikhali sisabela ekukhalweni ngemizamo yeNkosi yokuvala amakoloni. ISiphendundulo Sesine sokuvikela ekuphenyeni amakoloni amakoloni. ISiphenduku seSichithiso sesine ekufuneni nokugxazulula amakhaya. ISiphenduku sesihlanu sivikela ukuzisola okuzimela okungasolwayo ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile. ISiphakamiso semithetho semithetho sokulungisa izingcaphuno "onye" egcinwe ngokucacile kubantu, esingazange sicaciswe amalungelo angokwemvelo efilosofini.

Incazelo Yokwahlulela Nesimemezelo Esihlala Sisemthethweni

Nakuba lesiSimemezelo singesona isiqinisekiso esingokomthetho ngomqondo wokuthi sidala umthetho obophayo, izinkantolo ziye zasikhomba emakhulwini amabili eminyaka ukukhanyisa incazelo yoMthetho-sisekelo nokusekela ukuqashelwa kwamalungelo ayisisekelo. United States v. [[FLT] u-1884], iNkantolo yabhekisela ekunene kwabantu ukuhlangana ngokuthula nokunxusa amalungelo anjengoba "umthetho ngokwawo uhulumeni umisiwe]. Ezengxenyeni yeYarbrought [[FLT:] [184] [nge] [iinani], ibhekisela embululweni yabantu yokuthula futhi inxuse izicelo zenkululeko esemthethweni.[imvume] i-Exptionstudegraine ye-Exptions, njengoba kuvuma i-Expond ye-Expond ye-Expose.[5] izizukulwane eziseyakhonset , njengoba ithembiseyamukele isithembiso seNkadensi ye-Esahlulele yesithembiso somthetho esingu - .

ISimemezelo sifeza indima futhi ekwakheni umthetho wezizwe zonke namalungelo abantu. Izimiso zaso zancengwa ababuthi beSimemezelo Somhlaba Wonke Samalungelo Abantu (1948) futhi siyaqhubeka sithonya izivumelwano namalungelo omphakathi nawezombangazwe. Amazwe amaningi avela ekubuseni kwamakoloni aye alingisa izimemezelo zawo zokuzibusa esibonelweni sase-U.S., amukela umbono ongokomthetho wokuthi abantu banelungelo lokugumbuqela ukubusa okucindezelayo.

Izivumelwano Ezingokomthetho

Naphezu kwesisekelo salo, lesiSimemezelo asinawo amaphutha angokomthetho nezimpikiswano ezingokomlando. Ukuphikisana okusobala kakhulu yinkulumo ethi "bonke abantu badalwe belingana" kuyilapho umlobi waso oyinhloko, uThomas Jefferson, ayenabantu abagqilaziwe, futhi le ncwajana ngokwayo ayizange iholele ekuqedweni kobugqila. Lokhu kucindezeleka bekuyindaba yokuhlaziywa okukhulu ngokomthetho nangokomlando. Ezinye izazi ziphikisa ngokuthi izimiso zoMthetho woBugqili zazingathandeki nhlobo lwawodwa futhi isakhiwo sobugqila obungathembekile. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi iZisunguli zazingabaza abantu abagqilaziwe ngamabomu ohlwini lwezinjongo "men" yemvelo, umbono wokuthi ukuchazwa kokuqala komthetho womthetho kusekelwe kakhulu kuze kube iziphendulo ze-crestruption.

Imfundiso engokomthetho "yamalungelo angenakumukwa" iphakamisa futhi imibuzo esebenzayo. Uma amalungelo engamukelwa, angalinganiselwa yini ngomthetho? INkantolo Ephakeme iye yakholelwa ukuthi ngisho namalungelo ayisisekelo angaphansi kwemithetho enengqondo, uma uhulumeni enesithakazelo esiphoqelelayo futhi esebenzisa izindlela eziqinile kakhulu. Lokhu kusho ukuthi ulimi oluphelele oluzwakalayo kumelwe luhlanganiswe namaqiniso omphakathi oyinkimbinkimbi. Ngokwesibonelo, ilungelo lenkululeko alisho ilungelo eliphelele lokwenza noma yini umuntu ayithandayo; kusho inkululeko ekuzibekeleni umthetho ngokuzinqumela. Umthetho ngokwawo uyaqaphela ukuthi ohulumeni basungulelwe "ukungathsi" lamalungelo, uveza ukuthi uhulumeni ohlelwe kahle ungazibophaka imingcele edingekayo ukuze uvikele amalungelo abo bonke.

Omunye umbuzo ongokomthetho uwukuthi iSimemezelo simisa noma yimuphi umsebenzi oqondile kahulumeni wokulungiselela "ukuzuza Injabulo". Abanye abaqondisi bezemthetho abaqhubekayo baye baphikisa ngokuthi le nkulumo isho isibopho sikahulumeni sokuqinisekisa izimo lapho abantu bengaphishekela khona injabulo, kuhlanganise nemfundo, ukunakekelwa kwempilo, nethuba lezomnotho. Nokho, ukuchazwa komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo akukayithathi lencazelo, iSimemezelo ngokuyinhloko njengokulinganiselwa kukahulumeni kunokuba kube umthombo wenkululeko.

Isimemezelo esiqhubekayo semfundo engokomthetho

Namuhla, iSimemezelo somthetho sokuzimela siseyingxenye ebalulekile yemfundo engokomthetho. Abafundi bomthetho bonke e-United States babhekana nayo ezifundweni zomthetho-mthetho, hhayi njengomthombo wesandulela esiqinile kodwa njengoba sonke isimiso somthetho waseMelika sikhona. Ukuqonda isimiso somthetho sisiza abameli nabahluleli ukuba baqonde ifilosofi eyisisekelo yoMthetho-sisekelo: ukuthi uhulumeni uyisakhiwo esingokwemvelo esakhiwe abantu ukuze bakhonze izithakazelo zabo, futhi uma sihluleka, abantu bagcina amandla okuwushintsha.

Abameli bafunda futhi iSimemezelo sohlelo lwaso olufuna impendulo nelunengqondo. Lencwadi isuka ezimisweni ezibanzi ukuya ezithebeni eziqondile eziqondene nesiqiniseko esiphelele samalungelo `isibonelo sokucabanga okungokomthetho okusasetshenziswa ezifishaneni zomthetho zanamuhla. Ukusetshenziswa kweSimemezelo "i-bill of the anficious" kuyindlela ejwayelekile kunoma yiliphi i-litator. Ukunxusa kwaso ku "izigebengu zesintu" kubonisa indlela efanayo yokuphikisana ngezimiso zesikhathi nezimiso ezamukelekayo.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, lesiSimemezelo sisebenza njengomthombo wesikhuthazo ezinhlanganweni zezenhlalo ezifuna ukwandisa amalungelo angokomthetho. Ulimi lwamalungelo emvelo luye lwancengwa abaxoxisi, abaxhasi bamalungelo omphakathi, abashisekeli be-LGBTQ + ukulingana. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme [ku- Brown v. I-Buard of Education [1954]) ayizange ibhekisele ngqo ku-Izimemezelo, kodwa ukuba kwayo nenkululeko yezinhlanga iphula i-Clauslaus Projectivestion ivumelana nesinqumo sokuthi bonke abantu badalwa ngendlela efanayo. Ngempela, uDkt. UMartin Jr. Wayisekela amalungelo akhe adumile ezithembisweni, wabiza "promi" isaziso sawo wonke amaMelika athi ayizi.

Isiphetho: Incwadi Engokomthetho Ephilayo

ISimemezelo senkululeko sivame ukuchazwa njengencwadi yezombangazwe, kodwa okokuqala futhi iwumbhalo ongokomthetho. Siveza inkolelo kahulumeni osekelwe emalungelweni emvelo, ethandwayo, naselungelweni lokuvukela. Sinikeza ukubekwa kwecala okuningiliziwe komqhele waseBrithani osebenza njengobufakazi obungokomthetho besivumelwano somphakathi esiphukile. Futhi siveza umbono kahulumeni ongokomthetho oqhubeka uqondisa umthetho wezomthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Nakuba lesiSimemezelo singapho singaphoqelelwa njengomthetho ovamile, izimiso zaso ziye zafakwa eMthethweni womthetho-sisekelo, iSishaya - mthetho, nezinqumo zokwahlulela ezingenakubalwa- umumo. Ingqondo yaso ibalulekile esizukulwane ngasinye njengoba amaMelika ephikisana ngezincazelo zenkululeko, ukulingana, nemingcele efanele yemibuso kahulumeni. Ukuqonda izisekelo olungokomthetho lokuKhuselo akuyona nje indlela yokwazisa engokomlando; ukuqondwa kwayo i-Riphabliki nomthetho wase-America.

Ukuze ufunde ngokuqhubekayo, Izinqolobane zeMali zinikeza i-transcript egcwele ne-mongo yomlando. I-Literary yeSivumelwano [ inikeza amaqoqo ahlelwe ngokwemidwebo kanye nezincwadi ezithathwe enqubeni yokuhlela. Ukungena ngokujule kakhulu efilosofini engokomthetho, bona [[FLT:]] [FLT]] iSikhungo somthetho-Constitution sezwe sezezikhalomo [ kanye [FLT:] ne i-Legicregial Information Institutes thiation Institutes[FLT].