Ukulinganisela Okunganqamuki Kwamandla

Kuwo wonke umlando, ubuhlobo phakathi kohulumeni nababuswayo buye bachazwa ngokuhlala njalo ukushukuma: isidingo segunya lokugcina ukuhleleka kanye nengozi yokuthi igunya liyokwenyuka ngaphezu kwemingcele engokomthetho. Lapho ohulumeni bedlula amandla abo, imiphumela idlula emiphakathini, ngezinye izikhathi izizukulwane. Ukuncishiswa kwethemba, ukuncishiswa kwamalungelo, kanye nokusetshenziswa okuvamile kwezindlela zobuphoqelelo kusebenza njengezixwayiso eziqinile. Ukuqonda lamandla akuyona nje indlela yemfundo engokwemfundo, kuyadingeka ukuze kulondolozwe izinhlangano zentando yeningi nenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye.

Lesi sihloko sihlola izibonelo ezingokomlando nezanamuhla zikahulumeni abaphamba, sikhungathekisa ukuhluleka kokwakha okwenza ukuxhashazwa okunjalo kusebenze, futhi sichaza izinqubo izakhamuzi nezinhlangano ezingazisebenzisa ukuze zilungise ukulinganisela.

Okwenza Imibandela Emandla Kahulumeni Ibe Yindaba

Umqondo kahulumeni olinganiselwe ubuyela emuva kuMagna Carta (1215), owaveza ukuthi i-monarch yayingawudluli umthetho. Idemokrasi yanamuhla incike esimisweni sokuthi amandla ombuso kumelwe ahlakazeke, ahlolwe, futhi alahlwe. Ngaphandle kwalezi zikhungo, ngisho nohulumeni abahloselwe kahle bangakhukhulekela ebushiqelani. Ngokwesibonelo, amaFramers ase-United States Constitution, asungula ngamabomu isimiso semibuso ehlukene − − ukuhlukanisa, ukukhipha, ukwahlulelwa, ukwahlulelwa, ukuvimbela noma iliphi igatsha ukuba lingabi yinkosi.

Kodwa imingcele inamandla kuphela njengendlela yokuphila ewasekela ngayo. Uma ukwesaba, inhlekelele, noma ukushisekela ukubusa kudlula izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo, abaphaphamele bavame ukulandela. Inselele iwukuhlala uqaphile ngisho nalapho uhulumeni ebonakala enza ngokuvumelana nesithakazelo somphakathi. Umlando ubonisa ukuthi amandla esimo esiphuthumayo, uma nje ekhona, awavamile ukunikelwa ngokuzithandela.

Icala Eliyisigaba Lokuhlasela Kukahulumeni

UkuBusa Kweziphepho: Isayensi Yokuzimela Izwe Iqothula EFrance Ekholelwa Embulungeni Yokuzivelela (1793-1794)

INguquko yaseFrance yathembisa inkululeko, ukulingana, nobudlelwane, kodwa ngo-1793 uhulumeni ovukelayo wawusuthathe uvalo. Ngaphansi kokuhola kwe-Committee of Public Safety, eyayiholwa uMaximilien Robespierre, umbuso wamisa uMthetho weSuspects, wavumela ukuboshwa kwanoma ubani owathi ulusongo kulolu shintsho. Phakathi nentwasahlobo 1793 noJuly 1794, abantu abalinganiselwa ku - 16 000 kwabulawa ngokunqunywa, ngokuvamile ngemva kokuqulwa kwecala. Umthetho waba uphawu lwezwe olwaluye lwaba isitha salo.

I-Gaunt of Terror ibonisa indlela ukuhlanzeka kwemibono okungaba ngayo izaba zokuthethelela ubudlova obuningi. IKomiti iqeda ukungavumelani, iqeda inkululeko yomphakathi, negunya eliphethe ngendlela efana nenguquko eyayifuna ukugumbuqelwa. U-Robespierre ngokwakhe ukuwa − futhi ukubulawa ngoJuly 1794 kwabonisa ukuthi akukho mholi ophephile uma imishini yobuphekula iqala ukusebenza. Isifundo sicacile: lapho uhulumeni eqala ukuchaza ukusinda kwakhe siqu njengokufana nokukazwe, akukho okungasoleki.

I - Internament YaseJapane: Wartime Hysteria and paration Councial (1942 - 1946)

Ngemva kokuhlasela iPearl Harbor, uMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt wakhipha i-Eduzed Order 9066, egunyaza ukuthuthwa okuphoqelelwe kwamaJapane angaba ngu-200,000, amashumi amathathu abo babeyizakhamuzi zase-U. ayethunyelwa emakamu angenalutho azungezwe ucingo oluvalekile, ngokuvamile elahlekelwa amakhaya, amabhizinisi, kanye nezinto zokuziphilisa. Imfuno yempi eyaziwayo kamuva yatholakala ukuthi ayisekelwa ubufakazi; akukho Japane eyake yalahlwa icala lokufuna imvume noma ukubulala phakathi nempi.

INkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuvalwa [ku- Korematsu v. United States (1944), isinqumo esiye salahlwa kabanzi kusukela ngaleso sikhathi. Ngo- 1988, uhulumeni wase-U.S. waxolisa futhi wakhokha ngokusemthethweni isilinganiso semali engu-$200,000 (inani lama-20 000) kulowo nalowo owasinda. Lokhu kubonisa indlela ukwesaba okungadlula ngayo isivikelo somthetho-mshiciso, nendlela umphisi womthetho ongakwazi ngayo ukwenza njengeseshwa lapho imizwelo ethandwa kakhulu. Futhi kugcizelela ingozi yamaqembu ahlaselayo asekelwe ebuhlanga noma ebuzweni kunokuziphethe komuntu ngamunye.

U-Stalin u-Elexampt: I-Hulumeni Consuming Ityen (1936-1938)

U-Joseph Stalin’s Great Copheshing wayengesinye sezibonelo ezihleleke kakhulu zokuphendukela kukahulumeni kubantu bakhe,(nempahla yakhe siqu). Phakathi nalenkathi, amaphoyisa omshoshaphansi aseSoviet (NKVD) aboshwe, ahlukunyezwe, futhi abulale izigidi zabantu abathi "zitha zabantu"." Izisulu zazihlanganisa izikhulu zebutho, izikhulu zeqembu, izihlakaniphi, nezakhamuzi ezivamile. Ukuqulwa kwabekwa, ukuvuma izono kwakhishwa ngaphansi kwezigwegwegwe, futhi wonke amaqembu esizwe adingiswa.

Ukuqothulwa akuzange kuphoqelelwe yizinsongo zangempela kodwa isifiso sikaStalin sokuqeda noma imuphi ongaba umphikisi noma ophikisayo. Ukubusa kukahulumeni ngobudlova nokwaziswa cishe kwabangela ukuba kungakwazi ukumelana. Izinga lokucindezelelwa − kwabulala abantu abangu-60 000 kuya ku-1,2,2,5 000 000). Ukulinganisa ukuthi kwenzekani uma ukuhlolwa nokulinganisela kungasekho. Isifundo siwukuthi imibuso yempoqo ivame ukuzibalela ngokwayo; uvalo ekugcineni lufinyelela ngisho nabasekeli abasiza ekulusebenziseni.

AmaNazi EJalimane: I - Systemitic Democracy Democracy (1933-1945)

Ukudlondlobala kuka-Adolf Hitler ukubuswa kwezwe kwakungekona ukugumbuqelwa okungalindelekile kodwa ukuwohloka kancane kancane kwezimiso zentando yeningi. Ngemva kweReichstag Fire ngo-1933, uMkhandlu woMthelela woMkhosi woMkhosi woMbuso kaHitler wanika amagunya omashiqela, wamisa ngokuphumelelayo uMthetho Weimar. Umbuso wabe usususa ukuphikiswa kwezombangazwe, wahlanganisa amaphoyisa, futhi wasungula iqoqo lenkampa yokuhlushwa. Imithetho yezinhlanga yasusa amaJuda nezinye izakhamuzi ezimbalwa, ekugcineni yaholela ekuQothulweni Kwesizwe.

Isibonelo samaNazi sembula indlela izinqubo ezingokomthetho ezingasetshenziswa ngayo ekuchitheni idemokrasi ngaphakathi. Umbuso wagcina isithunzi esisobala somthetho ngesikhathi ubhubhisa umphakathi womphakathi ngokuhlelekile. Isifundo siwukuthi umthetho-sisekelo unamandla kuphela njengoba abantu nezinhlangano zizimisele ukuwuvikela. Uma ukubusa komthetho sekungaphansi kwentando yomholi oyedwa noma iqembu, indlela yokubusa ngombuso wobushiqela imfishane.

Icala lamuva kakhulu: i-Pinochet's Chile ne-Comporary Venezuela

Ngo-1973, uJenene Augusto Pinochet wagumbuqela uhulumeni we-CIA owakhethwa ngedemokrasi eqenjini le-CIA elagumbuqelwa. Umbuso wakhe wamisa izishaya - mthetho zezombangazwe, wavimbela amaqembu avimbeleneyo, futhi wahlupha izinkulungwane zabaphikisi. Umthetho-sisekelo kaPinochet, owabhalwa ngo-1980, waklanyelwa ukuba uthonye ithonya lezempi ngisho nangemva kokubuyela ekubusweni kwesizwe. Kwathatha amashumi eminyaka ukuqulwa kwecala okuphawulekayo (kuhlanganise nesicelo sombuso esivela eSpain) ukuze ulwe icala eliphelele.

EVenezuela, uMongameli uNicolás Maduro uye wahlakaza izinhlangano zentando yeningi kusukela ngo-2013. UMhlangano wesizwe ophikiswayo wasuswa amandla, iNkantolo Ephakeme yabekwa abaqotho, futhi kwasetshenziswa izinqumo. Ukukhukhumala nokuswelakala okukhulu kuye kwabangela inhlekelele yomphakathi, kuyilapho uhulumeni esebenzisa amandla ukuze avimbele ukungavumelani. Indaba yaseVenezuela ibonisa ukuthi iqhawe alikho emlandweni we-$ayilona usongo oluqhubekayo.

Ukwehluleka Kwezakhiwo Okubangela Ukuphazamiseka Okungaphezu Kwendlela

Ukuqonda lezi zimpawu kusiza ekuboneni izimpawu ezixwayisayo ezisheshayo.

Amakhambi Abuthakathaka Noma Angcolile

Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso kudinga igatsha ngalinye (elihlulwayo, elinomthetho, elinokwahlulela) ukuba libe nakho kokubili ukuzimela nokuqondisa. Uma isishaya-mthetho siba isitembu senjoloba sesikhulu, noma lapho izinkantolo zigcwele abahluleli abahlulwayo, isimiso siyeka ukuzilungisa. Ngokwesibonelo, eHungary ngaphansi kukaViktor Orbán, ukuncitshiswa komthetho-mgano kanye nokulawulwa kwemithombo yezindaba kuye kwaqeda izinhlelo zedemokhrasi kusukela ngo-2010. I-Europe Union iye yagxeka ngokuphindaphindiwe lezizenzo, kodwa amakhambiso ekhaya aye alinganiselwa.

Ukuzivumelanisa Nemithetho Ngezikhathi Zenhlekelele

Ohulumeni bavame ukucaphuna izimo eziphuthumayo .Izimo eziphuthumayo , izifo eziwumshayabhuqe, ukuwa kwezomnotho, ukuthethelela amandla angavamile. I-USA PATRIOT Act (2001) i-odoli abakhudlwana nokuvalelwa emadolweni ngenxa yesifo sobuphekula. Phakathi nobhadane lwe-COVOVID-19, amazwe amaningi amisa izingcingo nokulandelelana kwemishini. Nakuba ezinye izinyathelo zazidingeka, ingozi iwukuthi amandla esimo esiphuthumayo ayaqhubeka isikhathi eside ngemva kokuphela kwenhlekelele. Emazweni amaningana, ohulumeni baye basebenzisa iziyalezo zezempilo zomphakathi ukuze bacindezele izitha zezombangazwe.

Ukwanda Kwenkululeko Yangaphakathi Ngokwanda

Ubuchwepheshe banamuhla busiza ukuba kuqashelwe kakhulu. Ukuqoqwa kwemininingwane yequlo, ukuqashelwa kobuso, nokugadwa kwamaphoyisa kungathuntubeza ukuqashelwa kwamalungelo nokuhlaselwa okungakhokhwa. EChina, isimiso sokuthenga ngezimali somphakathi sihlanganisa ukuqapha ngesijeziso sezimali nezenhlalo, ukujezisa ngokuphumelelayo labo abaphambuka ekuziphatheni okuvunyelwe uhulumeni. Nakuba kuhlelwe njengethuluzi lokulawula umphakathi, kudala indlela enamandla yokulawula engasetshenziswa kabi yimibuso yesikhathi esizayo.

Ukungatholi Ulwazi Nokulawula Kwemithombo Yezindaba

Uma uhulumeni elawula ukuhanjiswa kokwaziswa, kungaguqula ukuqonda komphakathi nokungaboni lutho. ERussia, imithombo yezindaba ezizimele iye yavalwa, futhi imithetho emelene "nezindaba ezingekho" isetshenziselwa ukubopha abagxeki. Lokhu kuvumela uhulumeni ukuba anikeze incazelo yakhe siqu yeqiniso, okwenza kube nzima ngezakhamuzi ukuqaphela ukuphamba. Ukusakazeka kwe-transformation, kokubili izinhlangano zasekhaya nakwamanye amazwe, inciphisanisa ukuthemba ezikhungweni zedemokhrasi.

Izifundo Zokuvikela Ekunqotshweni Ngokweqile

Umlando unikeza imiyalo ecacile yokuvimbela noma ukubuyisela uhulumeni emandleni acushiwe.

Amasheke Ezinhlangano Eziphangwayo

Izikhulu ezizimele zokwahlulela, izishaya-mthetho zesihle, nohulumeni bendawo abanamandla kubalulekile. Ngokwesibonelo, isimiso sombuso we-U.S. sisakaza amandla emibuso ehlukene, okwenza kube nzima ukuba igunya eliyinhloko libuse. Nokho, ukuhlola kuqine njengemithetho esekelayo. Uma igatsha elilodwa lenqaba ukuhambisana nemithetho yenkantolo noma lapho abaholi bengayinaki imingcele yezikhathi ezithile, isimiso siyawohloka.

Umphakathi Wangaphakathi Okhuthele Nezingcingo Ezikhululekile

Inhlangano yomphakathi egcwele i-(all) nezinhlangano zohulumeni ezinamandla (nezinhlangano zomphakathi), amaqembu ezokuhlobana, izinyunyana zohwebo, nezinhlangano zenkolo − ikwazi ukuhlobanisa ukuphamba. Umzabalazo we-Uniterararity ePoland (1980) wabonisa indlela izinyunyana zezisebenzi ezingayibekela ngayo inselele isifunda sobuphostoli. Ngokufanayo, imishini ekhululekile isebenza njengesekeli, idalula ukuxhashazwa nokubekwa izikhulu icala. Izinhlangano ezifana Amnesty International kanye [FLT:] nencwadi yamaHumanist Watch Tower [[FLT:] UMB] Inters [[FLT:]]

Imfundo Nesivumelwano Sezakhamuzi

Abantu abafundile abawaqondayo amalungelo abo cishe abanakubekezelela ukuxhashazwa. Imfundo kufanele ihlanganise izibonelo ezingokomlando zokuphangwa, ukubaluleka kwenqubo efanele, kanye nendlela yokulungisa. Ukuhlanganyela kwabavunyelelwayo, inkonzo yamajaji, nokubhikisha okunokuthula zonke izindlela izakhamuzi ezingavikela ngazo inkululeko yazo. ISikhungo soMthetho-sisekelo wesizwe [ kanye nezinhlangano ezifanayo zinikeza imithombo yokufunda ngesivikelo somthetho-mthetho-sisekelo.

Ukucindezela Komhlaba Wonke Nokulandisa

Izinhlangano zembulunga yonke kanye nezivumelwano zingasiza ekunqandeni ukuphamba. Ukuhlanganisa kwe-palm ye-European Union ukuze ibe amalungu − njengokufuna izinguquko zentando yeningi − kuye kwasunduzela amanye amazwe ekubuseni kangcono. Izinkantolo zomhlaba wonke, njengeNkantolo yezizwe zonke ye-Criminal, ukuquliswa kwabaholi bobugebengu kubantu. Nokho, izinqubo ezinjalo aziphelele; izizwe ezinamandla ngezinye izikhathi zivikela izibambiswano ekuziphenduleni. INkantolo yezizwe zonke yeJaji [

Izinqanda - mthetho Nokubukeza Kwama - carpiter

Imithetho-sisekelo kufanele ihlanganise amalungiselelo anzima ukuqeda, njengamandla aphezulu afunekayo noma ukudilizwa yizifundazwe, `ukuvimbela izinguquko ezisheshayo ezigxilisa amandla. Ukumisa izigaba ze-operation kuma-operand mandla aphuthumayo kuqinisekisa ukuthi izinyathelo zesikhashana ziyaphela ngaphandle kokuba zivuselelwe ngokuvumelana okukhulu. Amazwe anjenge-South Africa ne Canada aye akha izimemezelo zokubukeza umthetho wesimo esiphuthumayo futhi atusa izinguquko.

Izinga Lanamuhla Lenkinga

Imishini Nezindaba Eziyimfihlo

Ohulumeni namuhla baqoqa inqwaba yokwaziswa ezakhamuzini, ngokuvamile ngaphandle kwemvume. Izambulo ngo-2013 zadalula izinga lezinhlelo zokuhlola i-NSA, ezazihlanganisa ukuqoqwa kwemininingwane yemicikilisho yemicikilisho kanye nokugadwa kwe-ingosi ye-inthanethi. Nakuba izinhlangano zobuhlakani ziphikisa ukuthi izinhlelo ezinjalo zivimbela ubuphekula, abameleli benkululeko yomphakathi baxwayisa ngemiphumela eshaqisayo yokukhuluma ngokukhululekile nangamandla okuxhaphaza. I-General Union'SCOM Protection Regime (GDPR) inikeza isibonelo sokuvikela izindaba zocingo zocingo nokuhlolwa kwe-ingo-intanethi, kodwa i-GPR iyaqhubeka iyinselele.

Ukubusa Kwemithetho Kahulumeni Neziyalezo

Uma ohulumeni besebenzisa i-algorithm ezinqumweni ezifana nokuncishwa kwesigwebo, ukuvuselelwa kwenhlalakahle, noma ukulawulwa kwamaphoyisa, ingozi yokuphanjwa yanda uma lezozimiso zifiphele noma zikhohlakele. Amathuluzi amaphoyisa abikezelayo aye aboniswa ezindaweni ezibhekene nezisulu ezimbalwa ngokungenakulinganiswa. Ukungabikho kokukhanya ezimisweni zenza kube nzima ukubekela inselele imiphumela engalungile. Ukuveza ukuthi ukuhlakanipha kokwenziwa kusemqoka ekuqondiseni komuntu futhi ukubukeza kokwahlulela kuyinselele yanamuhla enzima.

Ukusakaza I - populism Nomthetho

Ukwanda kwabaholi abaholi bezikhulu ezibusa ngentando yeningi kuye kwahlola iziphakamiso zezinhlangano. Abaholi abanjengoDonald Trump, Jair Bolsonaro, noViktor Orbán baye bahlasela ijaji, amaphepha-zindaba, nezinhlangano ezizimele, ngokuvamile bahlasela ngokuhlasela okufana "ukungena exhaphozini" noma ukuvikela "abantu bangempela" ukuwohloka kwezimiso kungaba yingozi njengokukhukhuleka kwemithetho. Uma umholi enqaba ukwamukela ukunqotshwa kweqembu likahulumeni noma ukukhuthaza ubudlova kwabaphikisi, izinyembezi zentando yeningi.

Ukusabela Ngokuphuthumayo Esimweni Sezulu

Ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu kuletha izinsongo ezidinga ukuthatha isinyathelo sikahulumeni ngokushesha. Kodwa izenzo zesikhulu esiphethe sodwa − njengokukhipha iziketi ezipholile noma ukuvimbela ukukhishwa kwamafutha ezinto zakudala − kudlula ukuncishiswa kwenkulumo yomthetho nokwezokwahlulela. Nakuba ukuphuthuma kungokoqobo, ukudlula izinqubo zentando yeningi kungadala ukubuyela emuva futhi kunciphe umthetho osemthethweni. Indlela engcono ukwenza izinhlangano ezingalawuliwe ezingekho ezibusweni zomthetho, ezivalelwe ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe, njengoba kubonakala kuyi-Agementation [[FL:0].S Environmental Provity Agemental[FFFM:1].

Isiphetho: Ukuqapha Kwaphakade Njengenkokhelo Yenkululeko

Ukuhlola uhulumeni ophathwe ngokuphambanisa kwembula iqiniso elingaphelelwa isikhathi: amandla athambekele ekunyukeni ngaphandle kokuba afakwe ngentshiseko. Kusukela emigwaqweni egcwele igazi yeParis eguqukeleyo kuya ekulahleni umthetho wokubusa ngentando yeningi eHungary yangaleso sikhathi, amakhambi aphindaphindwa. Amakhambi aqondwa kahle, izinhlangano ezizimele, imithombo yezindaba ekhululekile, isakhamuzi esifundile, nokulandisa kwezizwe zonke.

Njengoba kubikwa ukuthi uThomas Jefferson washo, ukuthi “Inani lenkululeko liyimali ehlala njalo. Ukuqapha kumelwe kwenziwe yizizukulwane zonke, ngokuba izilingo zabaphambani zihlala zikhona; ngokufunda isikhathi esidlule, ngokuqaphela izibonakaliso, nangokuhlanganyela ngenkuthalo ekubuseni kwethu, singaqinisekisa ukuthi amandla esiwaphathisa ukuba aqhubeke ekhona ukuze sivikeleke, hhayi amathuluzi okucindezela.