Umlando

Ubuhlobo phakathi kwemibuso yombuso nemibuso kahulumeni buyisisekelo sombuso waseMelika. UMthetho-sisekelo ngokwawo wazalwa ngenxa yokuhluleka kweZihloko ze-Confederation, ezadala uhulumeni obuthakathaka ophakathi ongakwazi ukusingatha izinkinga zezwe njenge-Shays’s Region. Abahleli eSivumelwaneni sasePhiladelphia ngo 1787 bafuna ukwakha isimiso esizonika uhulumeni wesizwe igunya elanele lokuthatha isinyathelo ngokuphumelela kuyilapho ukulondoloza i-Humele yamazwe njengezinhlangano ezizimele. Lokhu kulinganisela okubucayi kuvame ukuchazwa njengombuso wombuso wezwe [[FLT:] noma [FLT:]

Imibuso yaqala, yaqhubeka inamandla aphawulekayo ezindabeni eziningi zasekhaya, futhi uhulumeni wasebenza ngaphakathi kwesigaba esincane semibuso ebaliwe — ngokuyinhloko isivikelo sesizwe, ubuhlobo bakwamanye amazwe, nezentengiselwano zamazwe. Nokho, iMpi Yombango yawushintsha ngokuyisisekelo lo hlelo. Ukwakhiwa kweZiphendulo ze-Reconstructive — i-Harthth, 1450, ne-15 — yandisa igunya likahulumeni ukuze ivikele amalungelo ombuso ngamunye ekungeneni kombuso. Ekhulwini leminyaka elilandelayo, ukufinyelela kukahulumeni kukhula ngokuphawulekayo ngomthetho omusha we-Sakhi, umbutho wamalungelo omphakathi, nokwanda kwale mithetho yezentengiselwano. Naphezu kwalokhu kwanda, umbuzo oyinhloko wendlela imibuso yezwe neyombuso ehlangene neyomthetho oqhubekayo nezombangazwe.

UClaus Onedumela: Isisekelo Segunya LikaFederal

Umbhalo Nencazelo

I-Supremacke yoMthetho-sisekelo, esendaweni Article VI, Claus 2, isebenza njengetshe elichazayo lombhalo lamandla kahulumeni phezu kwemithetho kahulumeni ephikisanayo. Ifundeka kanje:

“ Lomthetho-sisekelo, neMiyalo yase-United States eyokwenziwa ePoweni yawo; futhi zonke iziThibe zokwenziwa, noma ezizokwenziwa, ngaphansi kweGunya le-United States, kuyoba uMthetho ophakeme weZwe; futhi abaHluleli kuwo wonke uMbuso bayoboshelwa kanjalo, noma isiphi iSiphakamiso soMthetho-mthetho noma uMthetho wanoma yimuphi Umbuso kunoma yimuphi uHulumeni.”

Lolulimi lumisa isigaba esicacile sombuso: umthetho kahulumeni — uma usebenza ngaphansi koMthetho-sisekelo — ufaka umthetho wezwe ophikisanayo. Isigaba sibopha wonke amajaji ombuso ukuba abophe umthetho kahulumeni phezu komthetho kahulumeni, kungakhathaliseki umthetho-mthetho-sisekelo walowombuso noma imithetho. Njengoba kuphawulwe uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall ] Mcloch v. Maryland[, iSupremacy Clace ayiwona umthombo wamandla ombuso ngokwawo kodwa umthetho owenza umthetho kahulumeni ube mkhulu lapho ungqubuzana nemithetho yesizwe.

Umbono WabaHluleli

Abakhi be-supremacy Claus bahlanganisa i-Supremacy Claus ukuze baqinisekise ukuthi uhulumeni omusha wesizwe ungasebenza ngokuphumelelayo ngaphandle kokuncitshiswa umthetho kahulumeni ophikisanayo. Ngaphansi kwe-Theace of Confederation, izifunda zikahulumeni ngokuvamile azizinaki izicelo nezivumelwano, eziholela ekuphazamisekeni kwezindaba zakwamanye amazwe nezezindawo. Ngokuwenza umthetho kahulumeni uphakame, umthetho wezomthetho wawunquma ukuthi ukhubazeke. Nokho, lo mbhalo wawulinganiselwe ngokucophelela: imithetho kuphela eyenziwa “ePurini" yoMthetho-mthetho - sisekelo — okusho ukuthi inegunya eligunyazwelwe imibuso kahulumeni egunyaziwe — ifanelekela ekufezekeni njengephakeme. Lesimiso sivimbela i-Hulumelo ezindaweni ezingaphansi kwe-Detith Amendment.

Ukukhululwa: Indlela Isu Elisebenza Ngayo

I-Supremacle iphakamisa imfundiso ye ukukhululwa , okulawula lapho umthetho kahulumeni ususa umthetho kahulumeni. Ukuhlenga kungenzeka ngezindlela eziningi, futhi izinkantolo zihlaziya icala ngalinye ukuze kutholakale inhloso yoMkhandlu.

Bonisa Uvivinyo

Phumeza intethelelo lapho umthetho kahulumeni usho ngokucacile ukuthi udlula umthetho wezwe endaweni ethile. Ngokwesibonelo, uMqaphi We-Inhome Security Act (ERISA) uzama ngokusobala “noma yimiphi imithetho nonke kaHulumeni ekhona noma manje ehlobene nanoma yisiphi icebo lezisebenzi.” Lolulimi olucacile lushiya indawo encane yokuthuthukisa noma ukunezela. ISishaya-Mnyango sivame ukusebenzisa ukukhulula izindinganiso zesizwe ze-comyunity emasimini anjengebhange, i-injini, i-ambutho, nokuphepha kwenuzi.

Ukuzikhohlisa: Ukulwa Nokuluthwa

Ngisho noma uMkhandlu ungakhulumi ngokucacile, izinkantolo zingathola ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni usuwelwe ngokusikisela, kukhona izigaba ezimbili ezincane:

  • Intethelelo eqinile ivela lapho kungenakwenzeka ngokomzimba ukwenza ngokuvumelana nawo womabili umthetho kahulumeni nombuso, noma lapho umthetho kahulumeni ukhona njengesithiyo sokufezeka okugcwele kwenjongo zikahulumeni. Geier v. American Honda Motor Co. [2000], iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi ifuna isifundazwe sifune ukubhabhabhaza-moya okuphikisana nezindinganiso zokuphepha zikahulumeni ezivumela ukuguquka okuthile.
  • isebenza esabelweni sokuhlenga' lapho iziKhomishane zilawula indawo ebanzi kangangokuba azishiyi thuba lokuthasiselwa uhulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, uhulumeni uthatha wonke umkhakha wokuphepha kwenuzi nge Atomic Energy Act, okusho ukuthi amazwe awanakubeka izindinganiso zawo siqu zemisebe yezitshalo zamandla.

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaxwayisa ngokudedelwa okulula, ikakhulukazi ezindaweni ezingokwesiko ezikhathalela impilo nokulondeka. Meditronic, Inc. v. Lohr (1996], iNkantolo yagcizelela ukulahlwa kwentengo emasimini angokomlando alawulwa yimibuso.

Uphawu lwezwe Icala leNkantolo ePhakeme Liyadunganiswa

[[UMTH:0] McCulloch v. Maryland (11819)

Lelicala lavivinya izinga lamandla kahulumeni kanye nokusetshenziswa kwe-Supremacy Claus. Lapho uMaryland ezama ukukhokha iBhange eliqashwe uhulumeni e-United States, uMahluleli omkhulu uMarshall wanquma ukuthi “amandla okukhokha intela ahlanganisa amandla okubhubhisa.” Wathi amazwe awakwazi ukukhokha intela ngoba intela enjalo iphula iSipremacy Claus. [MCulloch isungule imfundiso yezezwe ngoba intela enjalo ingasebenzisa konke lokho okungakhokhwakhwa ukuhlanganisa amandla ayo. Le ncazelo enkulu iye yasetshenziswa ekulungiseni izintambo zokuqondisa izigwebo zezikhali. [[FLT:]]]: Uhulumeni ungasebenzisa konke okuthiwayo “okufaneleyo nokufanele ukuthwala amandla ayo. Le ncazelo enkulu iye yasetshenziswa ekusebenziseni ukuphatha inzuzo ezindaweni ezibanzi zezikhali.

GIBBONs v. Ogden (1824)

Lelicala lalikhuluma ngobukhulu bamandla oMkhandlu ngaphansi kwe-Chommerce Claus. INew York yayinikeze igunya lokuqondisa isikebhe esinezitimu emanzini ayo, kodwa umthetho kahulumeni wagunyaza iGibbons ukuba isebenze emizileni efanayo. INkantolo Ephakeme yangqubuza uhulumeni ukuba ulawule igunya, inqume ukuthi amandla okulawula ezohwebo zezwe “aphelele ngokwalo” nokuthi noma yimuphi umthetho kahulumeni ophikisana nomthetho kahulumeni kumelwe unikeze inzuzo. [[FLT: 0] Gibbons wabeka isisekelo sokuqonda kwanamuhla kwezentengiselwano yezomnotho.

Shicilelaz v. United States (1997)

Akuyona yonke imithetho kahulumeni ejabulela ukuphakama. Shicilelaz, iNkantolo yawisa amalungiselelo eBrady Handgun Violence Prevention Act eyayifuna ukuba abaphathi bomthetho kahulumeni baqondise isizinda sokuhlola. INkantolo yaphetha ukuthi uhulumeni wezwe awunakukwazi “umyali” wezikhulu zikahulumeni ukuphoqelela izinhlelo zokulawula. Lesimiso esimelene nomthetho, esisekelwe eSiphendulweni seshumi, silinganisela ukufinyelela ukuphakama kombuso ngokuvikela ubukhosi bezwe phezu kwezikhulu zabo.

Arizona v. United States[ (202)

Kwecala elikhulu lokufuduka, iNkantolo Ephakeme yahlola i-S.B. 1070, eyayifuna ukwenza ukugcinwa kwemithetho yezezwe ephakeme. INkantolo yalahla izinhlelo ezintathu kwezine, iphethe ukuthi umthetho wokufuduka uwumkhakha ogcwele kakhulu. Isinqumo saphinde saqinisekiswa ukuthi izifunda azinakwenza icebo lokuqinisekisa ukuthi inqubo yokugcinwa kwemithetho engqubuzana nemithetho kahulumeni. Nokho, iNkantolo yasekela “ukungibonisa ilungiselelo lakho” ebusweni bayo, nakuba yaxwayisa ngokuthi lingabekelwa inseleleka kamuva uma lisetshenziswa endleleni yokulawula idiski. Lokhu kubonisa indlela uSupremacle Claus angasimela ngayo ngisho nalapho kusho ukuthi“ usiza umthetho kahulumeni.

Federation ye-Independent Business v. Sebelius (202)

Ngokuvamile ibizwa ngokuthi iAffordal Care Act, lesisinqumo sasibhekiswe ekutheni umthetho kahulumeni ungaphoqelela yini ukuba amazwe andise iMedicaid ngaphansi kosongo lokulahlekelwa imali ekhona. Inkantolo yathi ukuphoqelela okunjalo kwephule iSichibiyelo seshumi ngenxa yokuthi kwashiya amazwe angenakho ngempela. Nakuba igunya lomthetho ngamunye lasekelwa njengentela (kungekhona ngaphansi kwezentengiselwano zika Claus), ukwanda kweMedicaid kwabekwa umthetho ongavumelani nemali. Lecala libonisa ukuthi ukubusa kukahulumeni kulinganiselwe lapho uhulumeni wezwe uzama ukusebenzisa amandla okulawula imibuso ngokuphumelelayo.

Izindawo Zokucindezeleka Zangesikhathi Esidlule

Ukufuduka Namadolobha Angcwele

Umthetho woku-oparthera uye waba yindawo enkulu yokulwa. Nakuba i-Arizona v. United States iqinisekisiwe ububusi bukahulumeni, amanye amadolobha nezindawo ziye zamukela “izimiso zokulawula” ezilinganisela ukubambisana nokugcinwa kwezindawo zokufuduka kukahulumeni. Uhulumeni usongela ukugodlela izimali ezinjalo, kuholele ekukhipheni imingcele yokusetshenziswa kwemibandela ethile. Izinkantolo ezingaphansi zihlala zihlukene ngokuthi uhulumeni ungayifaka kanjani imingcele yokuthunyelwa kwezindawo zokufuduka ezimisweni ezisekelwe ezimisweni. I-Supremacle Claus iyazihlukanisa zombili izindlela: umthetho kahulumeni ungahlehlisa imingcele ethile, kodwa uvike isimiso sokuzimela izimiso zokukhetha ezingoko izimali zawo.

Ukuqashelwa Ngokomthetho

Naphezu kokuhlelwa kukahulumeni kwensangu njenge-Shedynal Scheme Ngilawula i-Schemed Systences Act, izifundazwe eziningi ziye zagunyaza ngokomthetho ezokwelapha ne-cannabis. Uhulumeni wezwe uthathe inkambiso yokungaphoqelelwa kwe-metalranda njenge-Cole Memory (manje ivusiwe) kanye neRohraker-Modelrater, okuvimbela uMnyango weJaji ukuba ungayisebenzisi imali ephazamisa imithetho yezokwelapha yenkansangu. Nokho, imithetho kahulumeni ayiwuvumeli umthetho kahulumeni we-Supremacy Clausda isho ukuthi abashushisi be-ogavior bayakwazi ukuvimbela ukuvinjelwa kukahulumeni. Lokhu kubangele indawo eyinkimbinkimbi nengahlelekiyo yamabhizinisi, amabhange, nabasebenzisi. Umthetho uye wabhekwa njengomthetho we-SAFE Act ekuxazulu, kodwa awugunyaziwe ukumiswa.

Ukushintsha Kwendlela Yokunakekela Impilo

Impilo iwumbuso wegunya likahulumeni nombuso ohlaliswayo. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Affordal Care Act, isungule izindinganiso zikahulumeni zomshuwalense kodwa ivumela amazwe ukuba asebenzise izintengo zawo futhi andise iMedicaid ngokuzithandela. Lapho amazwe enqaba ukwandisa iMedicaid, uhulumeni kahulumeni kwadingeka ukuba athembele ekusekeleni imali ngokuqondile ngokuhwebelana nohulumeni. Izimpi zokulwa eziyinhloko zenzeka futhi zenzeka ngokusebenzisa imishuwalense, imishuwalense, ne-telemedicine. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuvunyelwa kwe-FDA izidakamizwa ngokuvamile kululaza uhulumeni ukuthi kungabeka izindinganiso eziqinile zokuphepha. Nokho, igunya elikhulu ligcina ukusetshenziswa kwenqubo yezokwelapha, kudala ukuxabana okuqhubekayo.

Izindinganiso Zendawo Ezungezile

Umthetho wendawo ezungezile ungolunye ulwesinye isigaba. I-Cease Air Act ivumela izifundazwe ukuba zimise izindinganiso eziqinile zokukhipha igesi kunemithetho kahulumeni — iCalifornia, ngokwesibonelo, inesici esiyingqayizivele sokulawula ukukhishwa kwegesi yemoto. Nokho, i-Trump yazama ukuqeda ukuvinjelwa kweCalifornia, okuholela ekumangalelweni. INkantolo ePhakathi iphethe ukuthi i-Councial Deat Act i-dentil i-oct ikhulula umthetho othile ovamile owenqanda ukuhlasela ukukhipha amagesi ashisayo. Ngokuphambene, , uMassussettsss v. [[FLT:] [200] [200] [i], iNkantolo yeNkantolo ephethe ukuthi i-Courtston i-ographylet (icence: 7) i-mountsss) iyaqhubeka nokuguqula kwenqubo yesimo sezwezwezwezwezwezwe lonke.

Ukulinganisela Okuqhubekayo Kwamandla

I - Dual Federalism iphikisana ne - Conféderation Federalism

Izazimlando zivame ukuchaza ukubusa kwe-America njengenguquko phakathi kwemithetho emibili. uhulumeni we-Dationalism , ophethe phambi kwe-New Deal, wamisa uhulumeni nohulumeni abahlukene njengezimbulunga ezinamandla ahlukene. INkantolo Ephakeme yamisa imingcele eqinile egunyazweni lesizwe, ishaya imithetho enjengemithetho yokuqala ye-misebe yesizwe. Kusukela kuma1930, iNkantolo yashelela ku uhulumeni , lapho uhulumeni wesizwe ubeka khona umthetho obanzi futhi ubeka khona umthetho owesizwe ngokusekelana nokuqondisa okuhlangene. Izinhlelo ezifana neMidid, i-Chn Water Act, no-Creast Lend Bey Band der Decept. Ukuhlelana kwe-Copart kuvame ukuveza ukuphatha kwemithetho yemithetho ehlangene futhi kuphikisa.

Imikhuba Nezinselele Zanamuhla

Izinqumo zamuva nje zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zavuselela imingcele eUnited States ne-United States v. Lopez kanye [ngemfundiso emelene nokuyalela ishicilela u- kanye nezincazelo ezimngcingo zeCommerce Claus (njengoba ku-]]] United States. [Lopez[FLT]]]] [[FLT]]] United States v.Morriontion]). Ngesikhathi esifanayo, uhulumeni wamazwe uyaqhubeka usebenzisa igunya elikhulu kakhulu ngokusebenzisa amandla awo okusebenzisa intela, amandla okukhokha, nemisebenzi yakwamanye amazwe. Ezwe liye lasabela ngokwenza umthetho okhudculiweyo ezindaweni ezibhekwayo, ukuholela kwezinye izazi “ezwe eliphakathi. [FLT.[FLT:] [intelth:]).

Isiphetho: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Njalo Komnukubezi UClaus

Ukuqonda ubuhlobo phakathi kwemibuso yombuso nemibuso kahulumeni kudinga ukunaka okucophelelayo kuSupremacy Claus kanye nokuchazwa kwayo kokwahlulela. I-gamende liqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni ukhona ezindaweni ezingokomthetho zempi kazwelonke, kodwa alibuqedi ubukhosi bukahulumeni. Indima yeNkantolo Ephakeme ekulweni kwempi yokusakaza iye yaveza umthetho ocebile olinganisela ubunye besizwe nezinhlobonhlobo zendawo. Njengoba i-United States ibhekene nezinselele ezintsha — kusukela ekusabeleni komfantula okubangelwa yi-inthane — ukubambisana kwezwe nemibuso yezwe ne-ohulumeni kuyoqhubeka kubumbanisa ukubusa kwesizwe. i-Supremacle Claus ihlala iwumthetho ophethe lowo mngcele ohambisana naleyo hlangothini.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola [[FLT: 0] i-Constitution Annoted’s ukuhlola i-Supremacy Claus. Imibono yeNkantolo Ephakeme enjenge Mcloch v. Maryland[[FLT][4][FLT]] ne[FLT][at][4][i-av. United States[FLT:][FLT:] [[5]] inikeza umongo obalulekile. Ukucluzayo, bheka yemfundiso, bheka [FLT]