Izinkantolo Eziphakeme Nethonya Lazo Elihlala Njalo Ekulinganiseleni Kwamandla KaMelika

INkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States sekuyisikhathi eside isebenza njengomsunguli wokugcina wencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo, ukuvumela ukusakazwa kwegunya phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu kahulumeni naphakathi kukahulumeni kahulumeni nezifundazwe. Ngochungechunge lwezinqumo zezimpawu, iNkantolo iye yazichaza kabusha imingcele yezikhulu, i-producement, i-conostic, namandla okwahlulela kuyilapho ikhulisa noma ilinganisela amalungelo abantu ngabanye. Ukuqonda lamacala kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuthi isimiso saseMelika sokuhlola nokulinganisela siye saqala kanjani ngaphezu kwamakhulu amabili eminyaka. Lesi sihloko sihlola izinqumo eziningana eziyinhloko zeNkantolo Ephakeme, sihlola izisekelo zayo ezingokomlando, nemiphumela ehlala njalo ngenxa yokulinganisela kwegunya eUnited States.

I-Foundation of Judicial Review: Marbury v. Madison (103)

Alikho icala elibonisa kangcono indima yeNkantolo Ephakeme ekuchazeni igunya layo siqu kune-Marbury v. Madison. Impikiswano yavela esiyaluyalwini sezombangazwe esizungeze ukhetho lukamongameli luka-1800. Ngemva kokulahlekelwa nguThomas Jefferson, uMongameli John Adams owehlayo wamisa inani labahluleli beFederali, kuhlanganise noWilliam Marbury njengobulungisa bokuthula. Lapho unobhala wezwe likaJefferson James Madison enqaba ukukhipha i-overseary, uMarbury wanxusa iNkantolo Ephakeme ye-writ ye-mandamus, ethembele ku-Rocebook 13 ka-Judiary ka-1789.

IJaji eliyinhloko uJohn Marshall wabhekana nesimo esibucayi sezombangazwe. Umyalo oqondile kuMadison cishe wawungashaywa mkhuba, unciphise iNkantolo. Kunalokho, uMarshall wamemezela ukuthi i-Cull 13 yoMthetho we-Judicary Act yayingekhona ngokomthetho ngoba yandisa ukubusa kweNkantolo yokuqala ngaphezu kwalokho iSiphakamiso III soMthetho-sisekelo esikuvumelayo. Ngokwenza kanjalo, uMadrall wamisa isimiso sokubukeza [[[FLT:] [FLT]] [FLT]]

Umphumela Wokulinganisela Kwamandla

  • [ Ukugunyazwa kwe-judicicial: Isinqumo saqinisa ijaji njengegatsha elilinganayo, elikwazi ukuhlola kokubili i-Congress nomongameli.
  • Ukufuna ukuphakama komthetho-sisekelo: ngokugomela ngokuthi “kuyisifundazwe somnyango wokwahlulela ukusho ukuthi umthetho uyini,” Marshall wafaka ukubukezwa kokwahlulela embusweni waseMelika.
  • Imiphumela ethatha isikhathi eside:[ Marbury v. Madison uhlala eyicala eliyisisekelo legunya leNkantolo lokwephula imithetho kahulumeni nombuso, amandla eliwasebenzisayo cishe cishe cishe qho magama onke.

Umbuso Ozimele No Claus Odingekayo Nofanele: McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Lapho uKhomishane eqashana iBank Second yaseUnited States ngo - 1816, uMaryland wafaka intela emalini yebhange emingceleni yayo. Imali yebhange, uJames McCulloch, yenqaba ukukhokha intela, okwaholela ecaleni elaphoqelela iNkantolo Ephakeme ukuba ibhekane nombuso kahulumeni.

IJaji eliyinhloko Marshall lanikeza umbono ovumelanayo owawukhuluma ngezindaba ezimbili eziyinhloko. Okokuqala, wayekholelwa ukuthi uMkhandlu wawunamagunya asikiselayo ngaphansi uNicasary noMonitor Claus weSiphakamiso I, Ingxenye 8. Nakuba uMthetho-sisekelo ungagunyazi ibhange ngokuqondile, unika uKhomishano amandla entela, ukuboleka, nokulawula intengo, futhi umnini-yo (nendlela yokuphatha) futhi ibhange lesizwe eyindlela engcono newusizo yokuthwala lezo zinhlu. Okwesibili, Marshall wabiza u-Claus u-Slabel ebhange. ukushaya intela kaMariya, ukucabanga ukuthi akukhona ukuvimbela imisebenzi yentela engokomthetho yezwe.

Umphumela Wokulinganisela Kwamandla

  • Igunya likahulumeni elinwetshiwe: McCulloch wamisa imfundiso yamandla ashiwoyo, enikeza uMkhandlu ukwazi ukukhetha izindlela zokufeza imisebenzi yawo yomthetho-sisekelo.
  • [ ukuphakama kwe-Federal kuqinisekisiwe:[ Isinqumo savimbela imibuso ekusebenziseni amandla ayo okukhokha ukuze iphazamise izinhlangano zikahulumeni, siqinisa ubuhlobo obusezingeni eliphezulu phakathi kohulumeni bezwe nohulumeni.
  • I-Blueprint ye-ast ezandayo: Lendaba yanikeza isisekelo somthetho-sisekelo sokwandisa amandla kahulumeni ezindaweni ezinjengesimiso sezomnotho, inhlalakahle yezenhlalo, namalungelo omphakathi.

Ukuhlukanisa kodwa Ukulingana: Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Indima yeNkantolo ekuvikeleni amalungelo abantu nokubuyisela isimiso somphakathi efinyelele uphawu oluphezulu nga Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo. Icala lahlanganisa izinkantolo ezinhlanu ezihlukene ezibekela inselele ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi. Ngaphansi “kokuhlukana okulinganayo” imfundiso eyasungulwa .[FLT] v [FLT] [[FLT] [186] [96], isho ukuthi igcine izindawo zemfundo ezihlukene zabafundi abamnyama nabamhlophe. Amathektha, ayemelelwe nguThrefreall Marshall neNaCalvice Defect, kwathiwa ukuthi ukuhlazeka kwabantwana abamnyama futhi kwaphula [FLD] [FFF]

IJaji eliyinhloko u-Earl Warren wabhala isinqumo esivumelanayo esalahla isimiso semfundo “esihlukene kodwa esilinganayo”. Incike ebufakazini bezesayensi yezenhlalo ukuthi ubandlululo lwabangela imizwa yokungazenzisi, iNkantolo yamemezela ukuthi“ izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukene azilingani ngokwemvelo.” Isinqumo sadinga ukuhlelwa “ngesivinini samabomu,” inkulumo eyavumela ukusetshenziswa kancane kancane kodwa nakuba iqala ukuguqula umphakathi waseMelika ngokujulile.

Umphumela Wokulinganisela Kwamandla

  • UbuJudiciism noshintsho lwezenhlalo: Brown wafanekisa ukuzimisela kweNkantolo ukusebenzisa igunya layo ukuze igumbuqele izinhlelo zezenhlalo ezimile isikhathi eside futhi iphoqelele iziqinisekiso zomthetho-sisekelo.
  • Isinqumo sabangela umthetho kahulumeni olandelayo, kuhlanganise noMthetho we-Civil Rights ka-1964 kanye noMthetho we-Voting Rights ka-1965, futhi ngokuvamile kwadingeka ukuba izinkantolo zikahulumeni zengamele amaqhinga okuhlanganisa.
  • Ithuba lokubekwa kwamalungelo: Brown wavulela inqwaba yezinye izenzakalo ezihlanganisa isivikelo esifanayo, kusukela ekucwaseni ubulili kuya ekulinganani komshado.

Imfihlo, i-Autonomy, ne-Ofisi engalawuleki: Roe v. Wade (1973)

Zimbalwa izimpikiswano eziye zabangela ukumelana okuhlala njalo Roe v. Wade. Icala lalihilela umthetho waseTexas owaphula izisu eziningi ngaphandle kwalezo ezidingekile ukuze kusindiswe ukuphila kowesifazane. “Jane Roe” (Norma McCorvey) wabekela umthetho inselele, waphikisa ngokuthi uphula ilungelo lakhe lomthetho-mthethwe-sisekelo ekusithekeni. INkantolo Ephakeme, ngomqondo obhalwe nguMahluleli uHarry Blackmun, wavuma.

INkantolo yathi ilungelo lokufihla imfihlo, nakuba lingashiwonga ngokuqondile eMthethweni woMthetho-sisekelo, licacile ku- I-Seadie Procession Claus yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane leMinyaka Enethi. Le “miqondo yokuzimela" iqapheleke ngaphambili njenge [[FLT]] Griswold v. Connecticut [1965], eyavimbela ukuvinjelwa kokuvimbela ukuvimbela ukuvimbela inzalo. Roe wasungula uhlelo oluqinile oluthi ukulinganisela kokubekwa kwemfanelo yowesifazane empilweni empilweni kamama neyokuphila, luvumela umthetho omkhulu kakhulu kamuva ezingeni lokukhulelwa.

Umphumela Wokulinganisela Kwamandla

  • Ukuhlanganiswa kwenqubo efanelekile engaphansi: Roe wabonisa ukuthi iNkantolo ingavikela amalungelo ayisisekelo angangeniswanga, iqhubekela phambili isiko elidlulela emuva Lochner v. New York (1190] kanye nangaphambili ofell v. Hodges
  • Isimo sombuso. Amalungelo anye: Ikhono elilinganiselwe lemibuso lokuvimbela ukukhishwa kwezisu, ukususa ukulinganisela kwamandla kuhulumeni oshaya umthetho nasemajajini nakumuntu.
  • Ukugcina ukuhlaziywa kwezombangazwe: Roe waba ikhosha elithatha ijubane ezimpini zokwahlulela futhi wabhebhethekisa amashumi eminyaka empikiswano ngesilinganiso esifanele sokuhlola kokwahlulela,(] amadeba afinyelela umvuthwandaba ekuxazululeni kwesinqumo Dobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [2022]]).

Ukulinganisela Igunya Lombuso: United States neNixon (1974)

Ihlazo leWatergate labeka isimiso sokuthi “akukho muntu ongaphezu komthetho” ekuhlolweni okunzima kakhulu. Lapho umshushisi okhethekile efuna amakhasethi aqoshiwe ezingxoxo zikaMongameli uRichard Nixon, uNixon wathi ilungelo elibulalayo [ wamvumela ukuba avimbele amakhasethi ukuze avikele ukuxhumana okuyimfihlo komongameli. INkantolo Ephakeme, esinqumweni esihlangene sesingu-8-10, yalahla leyo mpikiswano.

Umbono kaMahluleli omkhulu uWarren Burger wavuma ukuthi kwakunelungelo eliyinhloko lokuvikela izwe noma izindaba zomphakathi ezibucayi kodwa waphetha ngokuthi lalingenakusetshenziselwa ukufihla ubufakazi ekuphenyeni kobugebengu.

Umphumela Wokulinganisela Kwamandla

  • Itshekhi lobumongameli:[ United States v. Nixon wasungula ukuthi umongameli ungaphansi kwenqubo yokwahlulela nokuthi ilungelo lokuphatha aliphelele.
  • Ukuphathwa kwegatsha eliphethe: Isinqumo saqinisa indima yezinkantolo ekuqiniseni umthetho wobugebengu ngokumelene nezikhulu eziphakamisayo, simisa isibonelo esisetshenziswa ekuhloleni nasekuhlolweni kamuva.
  • ukulandisa nokubusa komthetho: Isinqumo saba isisekelo sentando yeningi yentando yeningi yaseMelika, ebonisa ukuthi ngisho nesikhundla esinamandla kakhulu ezweni kumelwe siphendule egunyeni elingokomthetho.

Isivikelo esilinganayo nokulingana komshado: Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kwamalungelo omphakathi kwafinyelela intuthuko entsha owell v. Hodges , eyayikholelwa ukuthi imibhangqwana efanayo exhunyiwe inelungelo eliyisisekelo lokushada ngaphansi kwe I-Secodetine Programme Claus [ ne [[FLT:] EALT] Isivikelo sika Claus [ seSiphetho se-Genetic [intestem-Dration:]. Icala lahlanganisa izinselele eziningana zokuvimbela umshado owe-mishongowe-ox ukusuka eMichigan, Ohio, e-Kentecky, nase-Tesseen.

IJaji u-Anthony Kennedy wabhala umbono wabaningi, egcizelela ukuthi “ilungelo lokushada liyilungelo eliyisisekelo elizuzwe ngenkululeko yomuntu.” Inkantolo yacabanga ukuthi ukukhipha imibhangqwana efanayo engocansi emshadweni kwalulaza isithunzi sayo futhi yabeka i-“sligmation” ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo awunakuyibekezelela. Isinqumo sasifuna ukuba zonke izimemezelo zikhiphe amalayisensele omshado emibhangqwana engokobulili obufanayo futhi ziqaphele imishado eyenzeka kwezinye izifundazwe.

Umphumela Wokulinganisela Kwamandla

  • Ukuhlanganiswa kwamalungelo ayisisekelo: Obergefell yaqhubeka nesiko leNkantolo lokuqaphela izilinganiso ezintsha zenkululeko ngaphansi kweNkathi ka-Claus, kusukela ekuzinzeni kwemfihlo Griswold[ ekuxhumaneni okuseduze [[FLT:]] Lawrence v. Texas
  • [ Isinqumo sobuJudicic sengxoxo yesizwe: ngokuxazulula umbuzo wokulingana komshado ngokomthetho, iNkantolo ehlehliweyo yezimiso zesigaba sombuso kanye nezenzo zomthetho, iveza ukugxekwa kwalabo abaphikisa ukuthi izinguquko ezinjalo zezenhlalo kufanele zenziwe ngenqubo yentando yeningi.
  • Ukungezwani okuqhubekayo ngendima yokwahlulela:[ Ukwehlukana okungu-5-4 kwaqokomisa ukuhlukana okuseduze eNkantolo ngenxa yezinga elifanele lamandla okwahlulela, (ingxenye eyaqhubeka imisa ukuvinjelwa komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo kwamanje.

Ezinye Izimpawu: Ukulinganisela Kwezinga Lanamuhla

Ngaphandle kwalamacala ayisisekelo, ezinye izinqumo eziningana ziye zakuthinta kakhulu ukwabiwa kwamandla e - United States.

Izakhamuzi E - United v. Federal Echont Commission (2010)

Isinqumo sase United v. FEC, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi inkululeko yokukhuluma yokuqala ivimbela uhulumeni ekuvimbeleni izindleko ezizimele zezombangazwe zezinhlangano, izinyunyana, nezinye izinkampani. Isinqumo sagumbuqela izingxenye zeBipartisan Champaistic Reformation Act (McCain-Feingald) futhi savumela ukusetshenziswa ngokungenamkhawulo ekukhangiseni kwezombangazwe, uma nje singahlangene nomkhankaso wombhalisa.

  • [ i-Ivolution emandleni ezombangazwe:[ Izakhamuzi ezihlangene zandisa ngokuphawulekayo indima yemali okhethweni, zanika abanikeli abacebile nezithakazelo zenkampani impatho zemali kuyilapho zikhulisa ukukhathazeka ngethonya lemali ekubusweni kwentando yeningi.
  • Umehluko phakathi kwenkulumo nomthetho: Isinqumo sandisa izinga lesivikelo seSichibiyelo sokuqala ezinhlangano zezebhizinisi, sibangela izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo mayelana nokushintshwa kwezezimali zezezimali nencazelo yeNkantolo yenkulumo yezombangazwe.
  • [[UMTH:0] Umxhumanisi we-External:[ [[FT:2]] Isifushaniso sezakhamuzi i-United v.FEC

Shelby County v. Hoker (2013)

Ku Shelby County v. Hoker, iNkantolo Ephakeme yalahla ilungiselelo eliyinhloko loMthetho Welungelo Wobukhomo ka-1965. Ingxenye 4 yoMthetho yayinendlela yokuhlanganisa eyayinquma ukuthi yiziphi izifunda nomlando wobandlululo lwezinhlanga okumelwe ithole imvume kahulumeni ngaphambi kokushintsha imithetho yokuvota. INkantolo, esinqumweni esingu-5/4, yasekela ukuthi lendlela yayingavumelani nemithetho ephelelwe isikhathi ngenxa yokuthi yayisekelwe emininingwaneni ephelelweni kusukela kuma-1960 naka 1970.

  • Isinqumo saphazamisa ukugcinwa komthetho kahulumeni: Isinqumo saphazamisa ngokuphumelelayo imfuneko yangaphambi kokuhlelwa, sasusa ukulinganisela kwamandla emuva emazweni ukuze silawule ukhetho lwabo ngaphandle kokuqondisa kukahulumeni.
  • Imiphumela ye-Federalism:[ iqinisekisiwe i-Shelby County yombuso phezu komphathi wokhetho, kodwa abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi iye yaholela ekuvinjelweni okusha kokuvota okuthinta ngokungenakuqhathaniswa abavoti abambalwa.
  • [[Umthetho:0] umxhumanisi we-External:[ [[QULT:2]] Cornell Legil Information Institute compery [

INkantolo Ephakeme Nokulinganisela Kwamandla Okungalawuleki

Amacala axoxwe ngenhla abonisa indima eyinhloko yeNkantolo Ephakeme ekusakazeni amandla phakathi kwesimiso somthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Ngezimfundiso ezinjengokubukeza kokwahlulela, amandla asikiselayo, inqubo efanelekile, kanye nelungelo lokulawula, iNkantolo iye yandisa futhi yacindezela igunya lamanye amagatsha nezifunda. Lezi zinqumo azenzeki endaweni engenalutho. Zibonisa izinhlelo zezombangazwe nezenhlalo zenkathi yazo, futhi, zilololonga icebo lesizwe.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukulinganisela kwamandla akunakwenzeka. Ukwakheka kweNkantolo akushintshi phakathi kwesikhathi, futhi amacala amasha ayaqhubeka ehlola izenzakalo ezindala. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuthatha i-Roe adming eDobbs v. Wade eDobs . Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022) kwabuyisela imithetho yokukhipha isisu ezifundeni, ebonisa ukuthi ngisho nezinqumo ezinqunyiwe kakhulu zingaphinde zihlolwe. Ngokufanayo, izinqumo zamuva zeNkantolo ephethe emacaleni anjengeNtshona Virginia. EPA22) zinikeza uphawu olusha lokuhlola ukuvuselelwa kwegunya legatsha eliphethe inkampani.

Ukuqonda ukuhlanganiswa okunamandla phakathi kweNkantolo Ephakeme namanye amagatsha kahulumeni kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda ukubusa kwaseMelika. UMthetho-sisekelo, njengoba uMahluleli omkhulu Marshall aphawula eMcCulloch, “uhlose ukukhuthazela iminyaka eminingi ezayo, futhi ngenxa yalokho, ukuvumelana nezimo ezihlukahlukene zezindaba zabantu.” Icala leposi elihamba phambili linikeza izikhombo zokuqondisa ukuvumelana, ngokuqhubekayo liphinde lishintshe imingcele yamandla eRepublic ehlala iqhubeka nomsebenzi.

Ukufunda Okwengeziwe