Imvelaphi Engokomlando Yombuso Wobukhosi

Imfundiso yokuvikela uhulumeni ekuzilawuleni isuka emfundweni womthetho wesiNgisi, lapho inkosi ingenakumangalelwa khona ngaphandle kwemvume yayo ngaphansi kwesimiso sokuthi "inkosi ayinakwenza okungalungile." Lapho amakoloni aseMelika akha isibopho sikahulumeni, lomqondo wadluliselwa phambili njengesivikelo esiyisisekelo samazwe amasha adalwayo. Abasunguli bacabanga ukuthi isifunda ngasinye silondoloza ubukhosi baso siqu obuzuzwe ngefa, okusho ukuthi akukho mbuso ongaphoqelelwa ukuba uzivikele ezinkantolo zomunye umbusi ngaphandle kwesivumelwano sawo. Lokhu kuqonda kwakungasenziwa nje ukuba kuqalwe; kwakha isimo sezwe elingu judiary nomngcele wamandla kahulumeni.

Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme yokuqala, njenge Chashilm v. Georgia [1793] (1793) lapho iNkantolo yavumela isakhamuzi ukuba sisuthe iGeorgia enkantolo kahulumeni, yabangela ukuphambana okusheshayo. ISichibiyelo seshumi Nenye sagunya lagunyazwa ngo1795 ukuba sigumbuqele lesosinqumo, siqinisekisa ngokucacile ukuthi amandla omthetho kahulumeni awavumelani nezwe elezakhamuzi zombuso othile noma izizwe zakwamanye amazwe. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, iNkantolo iye yandisa isivikelo se - Alenyusith Ehla Ehla Enyustemplite ukuze ifake isivikelo esimweni esimelene nezakhamuzini sayo siqu, iqinisa izinga lanamuhla lomthetho womthetho wombuso.

Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nanye Nendlela Esisetshenziswa Ngayo Namuhla

ISichibiyelo seshumi nanye seSiphakamiso sezwe Elinye se-Exponent siyanikeza: “Nakuba umbhalo ubonakala ulinganiselwe ekulawuleni okuhlukene, iNkantolo Ephakeme ayisekeli isimiso sombuso noma sokungaguquguquki, iqala noma yamangalelwa noma yamangalelwa yizakhamuzi zase-United States yizakhamuzi zaseZweni elithile, noma yizakhamuzi noma iZiphetho zanoma yiliphi iZwe Langaphandle. ” Nakuba le mibhalo ibonakala ilinganiselwe ekwakheni i-osemthethweni okungcono, iNkanto ePhakathi isho njalo ukuthi ukubuyiselwa kuhlanganisa isimiso sombuso esinemingcele esisebenza cishe kuzo zonke izenzo zenkantolo, kuhlanganise nalezo ezalethwa yizakhamuzi zikahulumeni. Lokhu kuvikela kunweba izinhlangano zikahulumeni nezikhali eziwusizo zezwe.

Ngokufanelekile, ukugonyelwa kwesimiso sokuzimela kuyi-guar : kuphuca izinkantolo zikahulumeni igunya lokulawula izikhulu nge-sut nezifunda-zwe ezingavumelani. Ngenxa yalokho, ngisho noma ukuzisholo kommangalelwa kuvela ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni, inkantolo kumelwe ilahle isuti uma ingasebenzi. Lesimiso sisho okukhulu ngamalungelo omphakathi, ukuphikisana, nokusho okuhlangene nohulumeni.

Abahlukanisiwe Kuhulumeni OnguMbusi

Naphezu kobubanzi bayo, ukuzivikela kombuso akuphelele. Izinga elithile elimiswe kahle livumela amaqembu ukuba adlulise izikhundla noma izikhulu zikahulumeni enkantolo kahulumeni. Ukuqonda lokhu kushiyana kubaluleke kakhulu kubafuni bamajelo ohulumeni bezwe.

Ukwaneliswa Noma Ukuvunyelwa

Isinqumo esicacile silapho umbuso ugodla ukuzivikela kwawo ngokuzithandela. Izwe lingase livume ukuvumelana ngokuqondile ngolimi oluyisigebengu noma ngesivumelwano, noma ngokusikisela ngokuthatha isinyathelo esibonisa inhloso ecacile yokuzithoba kuhulumeni. Izinkantolo zidinga ubufakazi benhloso ecacile kahulumeni yokuvimbela ukunqanda ukumelana nokuzivikela; noma yikuphi ukungaqondi kuxazululwa kuxazululwa kokuvikeleka. Ngokwesibonelo, amazwe amaningi aye afaka izivumelwano zokuthi ukuzivikela kwemithetho yezonothi yezindlela ezithile zokunganaki kodwa ngokuvamile kubeke isijeziso futhi kubeke izimfuneko zokufuna inzuzo, njengamandla okunikezwa. Ngokufanayo, uma izivumelwano zikahulumeni neqembu lomuntu othile futhi uvuma ukukhonzwa okukhethekile, ukuthi izivumelwano zisho ukuthi izivumelwano zisho into ekhethekile.

Izwe lingasiphazamisa futhi isosha ngokuziphatha kwalo siqu. Uma uhulumeni ngokuzithandela ulisusa icala enkantolo yombuso ukuya enkantolo kahulumeni, ngokuvamile liphazamisa ukuvinjelwa kweSichibiyelo seshumi nanye ngenxa yalesosenzo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, uhulumeni othi ukumangalelana ngokwako noma ukuhlanganyela ekumangalelweni ngaphandle kokuphakamisa isivikelo ungabhekwa njengovumayo.

Ukuxoshwa Kwenhlangano

ISishaya - mthetho singasivikela ekulweni ngokomthetho wezwe lapho sithatha isinyathelo sokunikeza amandla asemthethweni futhi siyiveza ngokucacile injongo yaso yokwenza kanjalo. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ukuthi iSishaya - mthetho singasinqoba iSichibiyelo seshumi Nenye ngaphansi kweSigalelo 5 seSichibiyelo seMinyaka Engamashumi Ane Amane, esinika uMkhandlu amandla okuqinisekisa isiqiniseko senqubo efanele nesivikelo esilinganayo. Ngokwesibonelo, amalungiselelo athile amaMelika anemiya ekhubazekile noMthetho weMinde Yomkhaya ne-Medical Leact aye asekelwa njengasebenzayo, okungenani njengokusetshenziswa kubaqashi bakahulumeni, ngoba agunyaza amalungelo eNguqulo yeMpi Yesizwe.

Nokho, iSishaya-mthetho asinakuvikela uhulumeni ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso I (njenge-Chommerce Claus) ngaphandle kwenkulumo ecacile. USELELE FUBLIT of Florida v. Florida (1996), iNkantolo yathi iNkantolo ikholelwa ukuthi uMkhandlu awunagunya ngaphansi kweSishayamthetho saseNdiya uCentu Claus kulwelwe ubukhosi, futhi amacala alandelayo andise leyo mibono eSiphakathini Sokulawula I. Lokhu kwakha imingcele ephawulekayo: imithetho engokomthetho egunyazakuthi igunyaza ukumelana nezigaba kumelwe ikwazi umthombo othile womthetho ovumela ukuhlaziswe.

Izimpahla Ezimelene Nezikhulu ZoMbuso: Imfundiso Ewujuqu Ephuma Engxenyeni

Enye indawo enzima yimfundiso Ex Young, evumela amasudu ngokumelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni emandleni azo angokomthetho ukuze kunqandwe ukuphulwa okuqhubekayo komthetho kahulumeni. Ngaphansi kwalendaba eqanjiwe, isikhulu sibhekwa njengomphathi wezwe, kodwa umbuso ngokwawo awuyena ummangalelwa; kunalokho, ukuziphatha okungekho emthethweni kwesikhulu kususwe esisemthethweni saso. Lemfundiso yenza abachazi abachazi abachazi izinqubo zezwe nemithetho yemithetho yezwe ngaphandle kokulwa nomthetho wokuzivikela kobukhosi.

Ingxenye ye-Young engaphandle ilinganiselwe ekutholeni inkululeko elinganayo; ayivumeli isuti yemali ewonga lemali ephuma emphongweni kahulumeni. Uma umkhapheli efuna umonakalo osebenzayo, isikhulu singase simangalelwe engxenyeni yaso siqu ngaphansi kuka-42 U.S.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . umehluko oyinhloko ukuthi ukukhululeka kungasebenza kuhulumeni (ibhanothina) noma isikhulu ngasinye (i-imgamutting ingatholakala ngezinga elifaneleyo, kodwa isivikelo sobukhosi asikho).

Izimpahla Ngaphansi Kwemithetho Yamalungelo Ezakhamuzi

Uma isikhulu sikahulumeni simangalela ukuphulwa kwamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni noma e-stateory, ukutholakala kwekhambi kuxhomeke ekutheni ikuphi ukuchaza. Ukuze kukhishwe umonakalo wemali, isikhulu singamangalelwa ekhonweni laso, kodwa isifundazwe ngokwaso sihlala siso sokuzivikela. Ngoba ukukhululeka okungalawuleki ekuphuzweni kwemithetho yesikhathi esizayo, ukudayisa okuncane [ kunikeza indlela. Kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi nanye asigwemi kumasipala noma izinhlangano zikahulumeni zendawo ngoba azibhekwa njengezikhali zikahulumeni ngenxa yezinjongo zokuvikela. Lokhu kuvame ukuhlukanisa kuholela izibopho ezisobala ekuqambeni ohulumeni bendawo noma izikhulu zikahulumeni ngabanye abamangalelwayo lapho befuna amalungelo embusweni.

Imfundiso Yokuvuma Ngemininingwane

Imfundiso yemvume ifana nesimiso sokuvikela ubukhosi: isivumelwano sikahulumeni okufanele sibekwe icala. Ngoba ukuvikeleka kuyilungelo elingalahlwa, ukuqonda ukuthi imvume inikezwa kanjani futhi nini idingeka kuma - lituligator. Ukuvuma kungathatha izindlela eziningana, ngalinye linemiphumela yalo engokomthetho.

Ethula Imvume

Imvume ecacile kakhulu imvume eshiwo nge-statory. Izifundazwe eziningi ziye zadlulisa “izenzo zokuzisholo” noma“ ukunqanda ukuvinjelwa okungalawuleki kwezenzo” ezisho izigaba zikahulumeni ezizovikela. Lezizimiso zivame ukudinga ukuba i-patterff isaziso sokusho ngaphakathi kwefasitela elimfushane (umz. izinyanga eziyisithupha) futhi zingafaka impoqo yokululama isimilo. Imvume ingavela futhi ezivumelweni, lapho uhulumeni evuma ukuvinjelwa noma ukukhonzwa enkantolo ebizwa ngokuthi inkantolo. INkantolo Ephakeme ifuna ukuba noma yiziphi izimezo ezinjalo “ezingahlolwanga zishiwo ngokungathwi." Inkulumo evamile evumelwayo ukuthi abamele“ ukugunyazwa kwenkantolo” ngokuvamile ayifanele ivume ukunqanyulwa kwemithetho; imvume yenkantolo engokomthetho ngokukhethekile.

Ukuvuma Okushiwoyo

Imvume ephakanyisiwe ivela ekuziphatheni kukahulumeni okubonisa ngokucacile injongo yokungenela ukuqubuka. Isibonelo esivamile silapho uhulumeni ususa icala enkantolo kahulumeni. U-Removal uyisenzo sokuzithandela esibeka umbuso kuhulumeni, ngaleyo ndlela sivimbela ukuvinjelwa kwalesosenzo. Esinye isibonelo silapho uhulumeni ngokwawo ufaka imvume enkantolo kahulumeni, evula umnyango wokuvimbela ukuqubuka kwecala enkantolo kahulumeni, futhi uvule umnyango wokuvimbela ukuvela kwesivumelwano esifanayo. Izinkantolo zithola futhi imvume esobala lapho uhulumeni uhlanganyela esimisweni sikahulumeni ophethe izimo ezingenelayo ekuvikeleni, uma isimo sisobala futhi sicacile futhi sivuma izimali zikahulumeni.

Nokho, imvume eshiwoyo ithathwa ngokusemthethweni. Ukubonakala kwezwe nje ukuze lincintisane noma lithathe isinyathelo sokuxosha ngezizathu zokuvikela ukuzivikela akukuchithi ukuvikela umzimba. Umbuso kumelwe uthathe izinyathelo zokuyenqa ubonise ukukhetha okucacile kokuthi ungazifaka kumacala asenkantolo kahulumeni.

Ukuvuselelwa Ukwehluleka Ukuphakamisa Ukuzivikela

Ukuzivikela kobukhosi kuyisivikelo esiqinisekile esingase siphazanyiswe uma singagonyelwa ngesikhathi. Uma uhulumeni ehlanganyela ekuhlaseleni ngaphandle kokuphakamisa isivikelo sokuzivikela (_ngokwesibonelo, ngokuphendula isikhalo ngaphandle kokuhlanganisa isivikelo) inkantolo ingabona ukuthi inqanyulwe. Noma kunjalo, ngenxa yokuthi ukuvikela okungavikeleki kuthinta izihloko ezizimele, ezinye izinkantolo zikubheka njengendaba ephakanyiswayo engenziwa nganoma yisiphi isikhathi, ngisho nasekudluliseni. Ngakho izikhulu kufanele ziqaphele futhi ziqinise isivikelo ngokushesha.

Izizathu Ezingokoqobo Zokuqashelwa Kwabantu Ngomphakathi

Kubameli abamelela izigwegwe ezimelene nohulumeni bezwe, isinyathelo sokuqala njalo siwukunquma ukuthi umehluko ekuvikelekeni kwesimiso sokuzimela uhulumeni uyasebenza yini. Uma umbuso uvume ngomthetho noma ngesivumelwano, isuti ingase iqhubeke nge-forum ekhankanyiwe. Uma isiqubulo sivela ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni, i-pallaff kufanele ihlole ukuthi i-Congress iyakwazi yini ukuvikela imfucumfucu ngaphansi kweSiqeshana 5 seSiphendulo se-14 noma ukuthi i- i-Ex ethode Young imfundiso evumela ukukhululeka okulindelekile. Ezimweni ezihilela ukwaphulwa komthetho womthetho, umthetho wezwe inganikeza imbangela yesenzo ngokusemthethweni ngemiyayo engekho esilungiselelweni.

Iseluleko sokuzivikela sikahulumeni siyothatha isinyathelo sokuxosha izindawo zokuzivikela kobuso obuzimele ekuqaleni kwe-ligitation. Umthwalo uhlala kumphathi we-plutiff ukuze umise ukukhishwa okusebenzayo. Ezindabeni eziningi zamalungelo omphakathi, amagama asobala kokubili inxusa likahulumeni nezikhulu ngazinye ezisebukhulwini zazo zomuntu siqu ezinamandla okulondoloza zonke izindlela zosizo. Izinga lokuzimela kwegunya ngokuvamile liyaxoshwa ngaphansi kwesimiso sokuzivikela sobukhosi, kushiyelwa kuphela izikhalo zomuntu siqu ngokumelene nezisebenzi zempi ezomonakalo, ezingase zibekwe ngaphansi kokuhlola okufanelekayo kokuzivikela.

Kubalulekile futhi ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwesimiso sokuzivikela sombuso esisenkantolo kahulumeni nemfundiso yesinqumo sikahulumeni sokuvikeleka enkantolo yombuso. Amazwe angase abe nemithetho yawo siqu yokuvikela imfucumfucu ebanzi noma elinganiselwe kunesivikelo seSichibiyelo sezwe seshumi nanye seSikhathi. Uma icala lilethwa enkantolo kahulumeni ngokumelene nempimpiswano kahulumeni, umthetho kahulumeni owenqandayo ubusa, hhayi iSiphendulo seshumi Nenye. Lesimiso esimbaxa sidinga abameli ukuba bawise kokubili uhulumeni nomthetho kahulumeni ngokucophelela.

Intuthuko Nemikhuba Yamuva

INkantolo Ephakeme iyaqhubeka icwengisisa imingcele yokuvikeleka kombuso. Ngamagama amuva nje, iNkantolo ikhulume ngokuthi imigaqo ethile kahulumeni ivimbela ukuvinjelwa ngokomthetho ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo se 145 nokuthi amanxusa kahulumeni afaneleka njengezikhali zikahulumeni ngenjongo yokuvikela. Ngokwesibonelo, Allen v. [20] [20], iNkantolo isekela ukuthi i-Convective Relation Relation Act ayizange ikwazi ukuvikela uhulumeni we-broosethist ngenxa yokuthi uKhomisha kaKhomisha we-Congressmessance eyayingamela ukuphulwa kwelungelo ngaphansi kweSigameko 5. Lesinqumo kumelwe siqiniswe ngegunya elifanele igunya elingokomthetho negunyazwe yi-mthetho.

Okunye ukuthambekela okubalulekile kuhlanganisa ukusebenza kobubusi bokuvikela izinhlanga namazwe. Nakuba izizwe ngokuvamile zigonyelwe imibuso, iNkantolo isiqale ukulinganisela lowokuzivikela ezifweni ezimweni ezithile, njengalapho izinhlangano zezizwe zihlanganyela ezentengiselwano. Lezizenzakalo zikhumbuza abavikeli abazimeleyo abaqinile; zishintsha ngomthetho nangencazelo yokwahlulela.

Isiphetho

Ukuzivikela kombuso kulokhu kungomunye wesithiyo esikhulu kakhulu sokumelana nohulumeni bezwe. Umsuka waso emthetho wesiNgisi kanye neSichibiyelo seshumi nenye siye sakha isivikelo esiqinile esibopha amasudumu amaningi emali enkantolo kahulumeni ngaphandle kokuba imvume kahulumeni iyasebenza. Imfundiso yemvume, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi iveza noma ishiwo, iyisihluthulelo esivula umnyango wendlu yenkantolo womphakathi womabonakude abaningi. Ukuqonda ukufakwa kwemithetho phakathi kwe-athorion brogcation, ingxenye yemfundiso eqatshelweyo , nemithetho esemthethweni esemthethweni ibalulekile kokubili abafuna usizo nabameli abavikela izintambo zomphakathi. Njengoba iNkakhulu iyaqhubeka i-Court icacisa le mingcele, [[FLT] imingcele eqalweyomthetho wokuzingela ukukhoselelwa kwe-yo.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola i-Cornell Legal Information Institute ukucazululwa kwecala lokuvikela imfuno , hlola umbhalo ogcwele we weSichibiyelo sekhulu [, bese ubukeza isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ku [[FLT:]] 4] SAMINOLE V. Florida.