Umqondo wokufakwa kwenqubo cishe emakhulwini amabili eminyaka, indlela yeNkantolo yokuhlanganisa i-Courtments iye yashintsha ngokuphawulekayo, ibonise imibono eshintshayo ngombuso, inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye, nangendima yejaji. Ukuqonda indlela inkathi ehlukene kakhulu yeNkantolo ephethe umthetho womthetho-sisekelo waseMelika enikeza ngayo ukuqonda okubalulekile ekwandiseni amalungelo omphakathi namalungelo omphakathi aqhubekayo kanye nokulingana kwegunya lombuso.

INkantolo Yakuqala Ephakeme (1790s-1930): Inkathi Yobukhosi Obuphakeme

Emashumini eminyaka angaphambili erepublic, iBill of Rights yaqondwa njengesebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni kuphela. Imfundiso edumile yombuso yakholelwa ukuthi izifunda nezwe kwakuyizici ezihlukene zegunya, ngalinye linemithetho yalo eqinile. INkantolo Ephakeme yenqaba njalo ukufuna ukuba amazwe ahloniphe isivikelo esihlelwe ezinhlangothini zokuqala eziyishumi.

Barron v. Baltimore (1833): I - Foundational Ecaine

Icala le-senamenten Barron v. Baltimore (133) yamisa iphimbo laso sonke iSichibiyelo se-pre_Fourtenth. UJohn Barron, umnikazi wesikhulu semikhumbi, wamangalela idolobha laseBaltimore ngokuphambukisa imifula yakhe lapho kwakhiwe umgwaqo. Waphikisa ukuthi idolobha lalithathe impahla yakhe ngaphandle kwembuyiselo, liphule iSiphendulo seNguqulo Sesihlanu. Incazelo yalo yeJaji uJohn Marshall, ibhale iNkantolo ehlangene, ikholelwa ukuthi iBhibe Yamalungelo ohulumeni abaphethe kuphela, hhayi izishayamthetho. ISichithi sesihlanu sokuthatha uClauscare, Marshall wacabanga, “aton ayishongomqondo wokuzibopha inhloso yokuziyisa kohulumeni.” Lendlela yashiya ukuchaza inkululeko yabo yomphakathi.

Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Nokuvinjelwa Kokuqala Kokwahlulela

Ngemva kweMpi Yombango, ukumukelwa kweSichibiyelo se-FLT seshumi nane [[[FLT:] ngo-1868] kwasungula ulimi olusha olwaluzogcina luyimoto. Ingxenye Yodwa inikeza ukuthi akukho mbuso “ozokonakalisa noma ubani ophilayo, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho” noma“ ukudela noma ubani ophakathi kwegunya lakhe isivikelo esilinganayo semithetho.” Abasekeli babethemba ukuthi lezi zigwebo ziyophoqesha ukuhlonipha amalungelo abalulekile. Nokho iNkantolo Ephakeme ekupheleni kwekhulu lama-9 nasekuqaleni kwekhulu amashumi amabili leminyaka ihlale ingangatshalwa kakhulu. [FLD]] Icala lendlu [FOLT] [FF:3] [183] [3], inikeza iNkathina amalungelo alinganiselwe eNkakhulu leNkakhulu leNkakhulu le-Cunistrune, noma i-Inquluento engcono.

Izindaba ezinjengokuthi v. New Jersey (1908) yaphinde yabonisa ukumelana kweNkantolo. Kuleyondawo, iNkantolo yavuma ukuthi amanye amalungelo ayengaba “angokolwazi” futhi avikeleke kuhulumeni, kodwa enqaba ukuhlanganisa ilungelo leSimemezelo sesihlanu ngokumelene nokwethulwa kwenkululeko. INkantolo yathi i-Cal Procession Clausle yayivikela lawo malungelo kuphela“amalungelo embonweni wenkululeko emisiwe,” inkulumo eyayingaba nephakathi ekuhlolweni kamuva. Kusukela kuma 1920, inani elikhulu lamaLungile enkululeko.

Imfundiso Yokuhlukanisa Okukhethekile (1920s - 1960)

Inkathi yanamuhla yokufakwa komthetho yaqala phakathi konyaka ka-1920 lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme iqala ukusebenzisa isiqinisekiso se-Bill of Rights ezindaweni ngesisekelo secala. Lendlela, eyaziwa ngokuthi ikhetha ukuhlanganiswa [, yavumela iNkantolo ukuba ivikele amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ngaphandle kokuphoqelela amazwe ukuba athathe wonke u-Bill of Rights Reauniverse.

Gitlow v. New York (1925): I - Breach Yokuqala

Inkathi yokuguqula yafika Gitlow v. New York (1925). uBenjamin Gitlow walahlwa ngecala ngaphansi komthetho wobugebengu waseNew York wokwabela amapheshana e-socialism. Nakuba iNkantolo yasekela ukuqiniseka kwakhe ngezimfanelo, yamemezela isimiso esibucayi: “Ngenjongo yamanje singazimela leyo nkululeko yokukhuluma neyokunyathelisa, evikelwe yiSiphendulo Sokuqala esivela eMthethweni we-Bridgingment yomthetho we-Congresstion [1] iphakathi kwamalungelo ayisisekelo angokomuntu siqu kanye ‘ nezindlela zokuvikelwa yinqubo efanele yeSigwebo seGeneth sokuhlenga eSoundation.” Lokhu kuphawula ukusebenza kokuqala kwesimiso sokulungisa sokudlalwa kwezwe okuqondile ukuya ezizweni. Nakuba isinqumo sesinqumo sesikhathi esizayo singazange sivuleke ngenkululeko senkululeko sesikhathi esizayo.

Ukwanda Okuqhubekayo: Ngawo - 1930 nango - 1940

Ngemva kweGitlow, iNkantolo yawahlanganisa ngokuqhubekayo amalungelo eSichibiyelo Sokuqala. Nearbor v. Minnesota[[FL:1] [1931]) yakholelwa ukuthi ngaphambi kokuba uvimbele ukwenziwa kweSichibiyelo se-14th, isebenzisa isimemezelo sokunyathelisa esikhululekile ezindaweni ezithile. Jonge v. [[FLT:] Oregon [[FLD] [FLD] [37] [197] [ikhulu]) yafaka ilungelo lokuhlanganisa ingqungquthelana, ne-Cantwell v. Connecticut [[FL:] [1940] [i])) yandisa ukusetshenziswa kwenkolo mahhala kusenzelo. Nyulo ka-1930, iNkauhlukuse yamisa ngokuqinile ukuthi isivikelo sokuqala se-Ezigorime.

INkantolo yaqala futhi ukubhekisa iziphakamiso zamalungelo obugebengu. Powell v. Alabama (1932]), icala elibi kakhulu elithi “Scottsboro Boys” icala, iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi i-Sect Proces Clausce yadinga izikhulu zokunikeza iseluleko emacala ebulalayo lapho ummangalelwa ayengakwazi ukwenza ukuzivikela ngokwaneleyo. Lena kwakuyinyathelo lokuqala eliya kwesokudla ukuya elulekweni, nakuba yayilinganiselwe ezimweni ezikhethekile. Plakko v. Connecticut[FL:] (1937) yaveza izinga lokusebenza ngokulandelana kwenkululeko: kuphela lawo “ekhomba emqondweni wenkululeko”. Sizozivivinya leNkanto, inqaba ukuhlanganisa ukuhlanganisa iNkadebezoka ka-Platemption, nakuba kamuva, i-Pkoption ewuphendule ngokushintshayo.

INkantolo YaseWarren (1953 -1969)

IJaji eliyinhloko u-Earl Warren laveza ukwanda okuphawulekayo kokuhlanganiswa. INkantolo yaseWarren yasebenzisa iSichibiyelo seshumi nane ngonya ukwenza amalungelo enqubo yobugebengu abe isizwe, ukuguqula izimiso zobulungisa zikahulumeni. Izinqumo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa:

  • Mapp v.O. (1961]): Ihlanganise umthetho weSichibiyelo sesine sokususa iSichibiyelo, idinga izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba zikhiphe ubufakazi obutholakala ngokuhlola okungekho emthethweni nokuquleka.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Walawula “izimo ezikhethekile” kuBetts v. Brady (1942) futhi wakholelwa ukuthi iSichibiyelo seSithandathu segunya lokunikeza iseluleko sasibalulekile futhi sibopha kuzo zonke izindaba zezentengiselwano.
  • Malloy v. Hogan (1964): Kwahlanganiswa ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu ngokumelene nokuzixubanisa, ukudlula kokuwining v. New Jersey.
  • Pointer v. Texas (1965): Yathatha iSichibiyelo seSithandathu u-Claus e-Acess.
  • Klopefer v. North Carolina (1967): I-Exchange yeSithandathu yahlanganisa isibopho sokuqulwa kwecala ngokushesha.
  • Duncan v. Louisiana (1968): Kwafakwa iSichibiyelo seSithandathu lungelo lokuqulwa icala yijaji emacaleni angathi sína, ukuchaza “ukungathi amacala” ajeziswa ngokuboshwa izinyanga ezingaphezu kweziyisithupha.

Ngasekupheleni kweNkantolo yaseWarren, cishe yonke inqubo yobugebengu ivikela eSigqebheni Samalungelo, futhi ngaphandle okuphawulekayo kweSichibiyelo seSiphendu sehhala sesihlanu sokulahla amajaji ``Indlela yeNkantolo] yayifakwe kuso. Indlela yeNkantolo yayisuswe ngokuqinile yokukhetha ukuhlanganiswa kwecala [, inqabe iJaji Hugo Black's sibiza ingqikithi (umbono wokuthi iSichibiyelo seGajithe samashumi amane anesine sasisebenzisa wonke ama-partit artit arectit [ignomesss). Kunalokho, iNkanto yayisebenzisa ilungelo ngalinye, ifuna ukutholwa kwezekethi eyisisekelo kuphela.

Inkathi yanamuhla kanye nokuHlalanisa (1960s/Presenter)

Ngemva kwenkathi yaseWarren, iziNkantolo zaseBurger nezoMbundla ZaseRehnquist zalondoloza kakhulu lezi sivikelo ezisetshenziswayo kuyilapho ngezikhathi ezithile zanda.

Ukuhlaziywa KweSichibiyelo Sesibili

Sekungamashumi eminyaka, iNkantolo Ephakeme ingazange ibhekise phambili ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesibili selungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izikhali ezisetshenziswa ezifundazweni. Ngemva i-Dialiation of Columbia v. Heller (2008]) yaqaphela ilungelo lomuntu siqu lokuzilungisa ngokwakhe ezinhlanganweni zikahulumeni, umbuzo wavela ngokushesha ngemithetho kazwe nezindawo. [Phakathi [FLT:]] Mcnald v. UChicagoc, ubuningi beNkantolo obungasetshenziswangamanga, (2010), obubodwa beNkanto ephethwe ukuthi iSichime sesibili sihlanganiswe ngeSimini seSimiso sikaClaul Claussce ngenxa yokuzilungisa okulungile ngenxa yesimiso somphakathi somphakathi. I-Thona ibone ukuthi u-Clavinson ingu, futhi ume u-Thost Mouse uyavuma ukuthi u-ul.

Ukuhlaziywa KweSichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili

Isivikelo seSichibiyelo se-Eighth sokumelana neSigqizo sonya nesingavamile safakwa ekuqaleni Robinson v. California [1962], esabulala umthetho waseCalifornia owenza ukuba ukuluthwa kwezidakamizwa kube umthetho wonya nowesigebengu ongavamile ngaphansi kweSigqizo seSigqi Saka seminyaka Engamashumi Amane nane. Muva nje, [[FLT:]] Timbs v. Indiana [[FLT]] [[FLT] [2010]] [2010]), iNkathi i-Courtyisile yahlanganisa i-Spectivess Fault Reconcences Clausspectivessss, iphethe umthetho owe-Severences egcwele imvume yokukhulula u-Clausus, ibambe ukuthi isivikelo sokuhle ngokweqile kwezeqiniswa kwemiyalo lesizwe singu elingu elingulwe kakhulu. Umahlulelwayo esingu, uma isikhulu esingulwe ngokusayo esingu, singekho somthetho esingu

Isimo Samanje: Yini Engakahlanganisiwe?

Kuze kube namuhla, iningi lezincwadi zamalungelo abantu liye lasetshenziswa kulezi zifundazwe.

  • Isichibiyeli sokuqala:[ Zonke izigaba eziyinhloko (i-ecech, umshini wokunyathelisa, umhlangano, isicelo, ukuvivinya umzimba kwamahhala, ukumiswa) zihlanganisiwe ngokugcwele.
  • [[UMTH:0] Isichibiyeli esihlangene:[ Sifakwe [[[QUL:2]] uMcDonald (2010).
  • Isichibiyeli esiphindwe ka-TY: Asifakwanga; akukho cala leNkantolo Ephakeme elinamacala aqondile athathwa uhulumeni. Izinkantolo eziphansi zihlukene, kodwa lendaba ayivamile ukuphakama.
  • [[UMTL:0] Isichibiyeli sesine:[ ngokugcwele, kuhlanganise nesimiso sokususa.
  • Isichibiyeli se-FTth: Izigaba eziningi ezihlanganisiwe ngaphandle kwemfuneko enkulu yokulahla amajaji (Hurtado v. California, 1884], namanje umthetho omuhle). Ukuzifaka ngokwakho, izingozi eziphindwe kabili, inqubo efanele, nokuthatha konke kuyafakwa.
  • Isichibiyeli se-xxte:[ Wonke amalungelo (icala lomphakathi, ukuqulwa kwecala elingakhethi, isaziso samacala, ukuxabana, inqubo ephoqelelwe, iseluleko) kuyahlanganiswa.
  • Isichibiyeli seshumi nanhlanu: Ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala lomphakathi alifakwanga. Inkantolo ayikaze ilisebenzise ezifundazweni, futhi umbhalo wenguquko ngokwawo ubhekisela “kumthetho ovamile” ngaphandle kokukhuluma ngezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Izifunda eziningi zinamalungelo azo okuqulwa kwejaji.
  • Isichibiyeli sobugqizi:[ Isijeziso esinonya nesingavamile ( Robinson) kanye nemali eshibhile ([]] izigcwabo[ 2019]) zihlanganisiwe. Ibheyili engaphezulu kakhulu ayifakwanga ngokuqinisekile, nakuba izinkantolo ezimbalwa eziphansi ziyicabangela.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Izigwebo zeNyakatho nezeshumi: Azihlanganisiwe; lezi zinguquko ziyizakhiwo kunamalungelo omuntu ngamunye.

Impikiswano Eyinhloko Nezindlela Zokuchaza

Kuwo wonke umlando wokuhlanganisa, izinkolelo-lwazi ezimbili ezinkulu ezincintisanayo ziye zahlela ukucabanga kokwahlulela: ngokukhetha ukuhlanganiswa (indlela ebanzi) kanye ingqikithi ye-divolution[[ (isekelwa ngokuqinile nguMahluleli omnyama kodwa ongazange wamukele). [uMahlulelwa, ngokwehlukene, uFlavi, ulwelwe ngendinganiso olusekelwe engqikithini yezimo eziqondeneyo kunoma ukusebenzisa amalungiselelo athile. Lendlela, ngezinye izikhathi ebizwa [[FLT:] [FFFFF:5], inciphiswe kakhulu ngemva kokushintshana kwemicimbiso yeNka yeNkanto ekhethekile. [[3][6] INkakhulukazi ye-Fogcode "[5] [F] kulokhu kubuza ukuthika ngokomthetho wesizwe] [FFog.] [F] [F] [3]] [FF] kulokhu kugcwele ngokomthetho kanye] [umthetho wesizwe] [

Enye impikiswano eqhubekayo iphathelene nendlela yokunquma isisekelo. Abanye abahluleli, ikakhulukazi uScalia noThomas, baye bagcizelela ukuhlaziywa komlando kwamalungelo ayethathwa njengayisisekelo ngo-1868 lapho iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo sagunyazwa. Abanye, njengoMahluleli Breyer, baye bavumela indlela engcono yokususa, eqondeneyo manje ecabangela izindinganiso zanamuhla zokuziphatha okuhle. Umbango phakathi kwendlela yokuqala neyokuphila kwamalungelo azimele uyaqhubeka nokwazisa izimpikiswano zanamuhla.

Okuhlobene Nesifundo Esiqhubekayo

Isiphetho: Ifa Eliqhubekayo Lokuhlanjululwa

Isenzweni seNkantolo Ephakeme sokuthatha noma isiphi isilinganiso sokuqala sokusetshenziswa kweSikhathi Samalungelo abantu esicishe sipheleliseke kakhulu namuhla simelela esinye sezinguquko ezijulile kakhulu kumthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Ngokukhetha, iNkantolo iye yaqinisekisa ukuthi inkululeko eyisisekelo (inkululeko yokukhuluma, ukuvivinya inkolo, ilungelo lokuphatha izikhali, ukuvikela isivikelo sombuso wesizwe sokuphehlwa kweBhili lamaLungelo.) Izijeziso zonya ziqinisekisiwe kuwo wonke amaMelika kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ahlala kusiphi isimo. Nakuba izigaba ezimbalwa zihlala zingafakwanga (ngokuyinhloko imfuneko yabahluleli abakhulu abahluleli bejaji nesinqumo sokuqunga ilunga kwesokudla), ukuthambekela okungoko ekuvikeleni kwesizwe ngesilinganiso sombuso wesizwe. Izinkantolo zesikhathi esizayo zinganweba noma ziphinde zinciphe imingcele yemfundiso, ikakhulukazi ezindaweni zobuchwepheshe, futhi zikhiphe inqubo yezenhlalakahle yezezenhlalo yezenhlalakahle yezenhlalakahle yezomthetho yezomthetho eMelika.