I-Ankile yomthetho-sisekelo: Ukuqonda izivikelo ze-oparthiki eziphindwe kabili

Ukwenqatshelwa kwengozi ephindwe kabili kungokomunye wezindawo ezivikela kakhulu emthetho wobugebengu, osekelwe emthetho wasendulo isaga sezentengiselwano sedebet bis volera pro et eaeusa (akekho umuntu okufanele akhathazeke kabili ngenxa yesizathu esifanayo). E-United States, iSiphendu sesiHlomelo sesihlanu sinikeza lesisivikelo, sithi akekho umuntu ozobekwa inseleleka yecala elifanayo kabili engonakalisa ukuphila noma isitho somthetho. ” Lesi simiso siqinisekisa ukuba kube nokugcina ubugebengu obe uhulumeni ukuze usebenzise izinto zawo ezingcono ukuze unciphise ummangalelwa ngokumshukumelwa ngokuphindaphindiwe. Isivikelo esibekwa kanye isikhonkwane, noma lapho ufakazi beboshelwe ngokunye ukuqulwa kwecala.

Izinjongo ezimbaxambili zezingozi ezimbili zisekelwe ekuqondeni ngokulunga: ilondoloza ubuqotho besinqumo sabahluleli ngokuvimbela uhulumeni ukuba uvale abamangalelwa, futhi ivikela abantu ebunzimeni bokuqulwa kwecala ngokulandelana, okungaphoqelela ukuba bathwale umthwalo owezimali, ongokomzwelo, nowezenhlalo wokuzivikela unomphela. Njengoba iNkantolo Ephakeme iphawulwe [ku- u-Greenlytic v. United States [1957], isimiso esihlanganisa "isimiso somthetho wokugcina inzuzo yommangalelwa." kodwa, ukusebenza kwalemfundiso kusuke kuyinto elula, ikakhulukazi uma kuhileleke iziphakatho ezithathelwana, noma ezimweni ezibanzi ezifana nezingathandekile.

Isifundo sendaba 1: Ashe v. Sunson[FL:1] (1970) – Imfundiso kaCollateral Estopel

Enye yezicelo ezibaluleke kakhulu zobungozi obuphindwe kabili yavela enkantolo yokuphanga eMissouri. URobert Ashe wamangalelwa ngokuphanga abadlali abayisithupha abahlomile. Ekuqulweni kwakhe kokuqala ngokuphanga isisulu esisodwa, abahluleli bakhulula u-Ashe ngenxa yobufakazi obunganele. Nokho, umbuso waphinde wamzama ngokushesha ngokuphanga isisulu sesibili kusehlakalo esifanayo. U-Ashe’she waphikisa ngokuthi i-Valective kufanele ibambe inkantolo yesibili, njengoba impikiswano eyisisekelo yayinguMphathi wecala wemibhidliki.

Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme Esiwuphawu Lwezwe

INkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. yavumelana ne-Ashe enqumweni esingu-8-1, iphethe ukuthi i-ashe yengozi ephindwe kabili ihlanganisa imfundiso ye-literal estoppel, evimbela uhulumeni ukuba alungise izindaba zeqiniso ezixazululwe ngokomthetho ezithi ngempela zanqunywa ngokuvala icala ngaphambi kokuba igwegwe. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi isinqumo sokuqala sabahluleli sithola ukuthi u-Ashe wayengeyena omunye wabaphangi, futhi umbuso awunakumphoqelela ukuba avikele lowombuzo oyiqiniso futhi. Lendaba yaveza ukuthi ingozi ephindwe kabili idlulele ngaphandle nje kokudlulisa icala elifanayo. Inkantolo ivimbela uhulumeni ekuzameni ukufakazela iphuzu eliyisisekelo eliyisisekelo ekuqulweni okuhlukile, ngisho nalapho ilebulatimende elingokomthetho lihlukile.

Ithonya Elingokoqobo Ekuvimbeleni Kwezigebengu

Abameli abavikelayo, Ashe v. SUNTson unikeza ithuluzi elinamandla. Uma ikhasimende likhululiwe ngecala elilodwa, isivikelo kumelwe sihlaziye ukuthi yini etholiwe ngempela kuleso sinqumo. Uma lawo maqiniso abalulekile kwelinye icala elilindileyo, ukuzama ukulahla okusekelwe ekuhlolweni kwe-epal estole emaill kungabekwa. Lemfundiso iphoqelela abashushisi ukuba bakhiphe zonke izikhalo ezivela enkantolo eyodwa yobugebengu enkantolo, noma balahlekelwe ikhono lokuziphishekela ngemva kokulahlwa. Icala futhi likwenza kube neziyalezo ezicophelelayo zejaji, njengezindlela zesinqumo esinganquma ububanzi bendaba.

Isifundo secala 2: [[QUL:0] United States v. Ball (1996) – Ukuphela kokulahlwa

Icala eliyisisekelo lokuqulwa kwamacala okulahlwa ngokuphelele kwamacala lalihilela abamangalelwa abathathu abamangalelwa ngenxa yokubulala. UMillard Gleymore Ball nabameli bakhe abakanye naye baqulwa icala ngo-1891 futhi bakhululwa. Ezinyangeni ezingu-8 kamuva, uhulumeni wathola icala elisha lokubulala okufanayo, futhi la madoda amathathu aquliswa icala, agwetshwa, agwetshwa futhi agwetshwa ukufa. INkantolo Ephakeme yalahla inkantolo, iphethe ukuthi icala lesibili lenze izingozi eziphindwe kabili. UJaji u-Gray wabhalela iningi ukuthi "isinqumo sokulahlwa, nakuba singalandelwanga nanoma isiphi isahlulelo, iyisiqobo sokumangalelwa okulandelayo ngenxa yecala elifanayo lecala.""

"Ubukhosi Obuvamile" Obuhlukanisiwe

Nakuba isungulwe isivikelo se-marrock ye-pat i-ball evikelayo elandela iSiphendulo sobukhosi, imfundiso yobukhosi yenza ukuhlukana okukhulu ukuze kube nezingozi eziphindwe kabili. Lemfundiso ivumela ababusi abahlukene (njengombuso nohulumeni) ukuba bamangalele ukuziphatha okufanayo ngaphandle kokwephula iSiphendulo sesihlanu. Incazelo isho ukuthi umbusi ngamunye unemithetho yakhe siqu kanye nesithakazelo sakhe ekuzibekeleni imingcele yayo, okusho ukuthi ummangalelwa akabekwanga kabili engozini "ngenxa yecala elifanayo le-palment"""'icala elihlukene ngenxa yokuthi umeluko lwemithetho yezikhulu ehlukene."

Isifundo secala 3: [[QUL:0] Ggush v. United States (2029) – Umbuso we-Dual Uqinisekisiwe

Kusempikiswaneni yamuva nje empikiswaneni yokubusa okumbaxambili, uTerance Gamble walahlwa enkantolo yesifundazwe sase-Alabama ngenxa yokuphanga futhi wabekwa icala elingokomthetho ngenxa yokuphatha isibhamu ngomphathi onecala elibikiwe, ngokusekelwe esibonelweni esifanayo. UGangel waphikisa ngokuthi imfundiso ehlangene yobukhosi kufanele iphendulwe, ethi ilulaza isivikelo esiyisisekelo sengozi ephindwe kabili. INkantolo Ephakeme, esinqunyweni ka-7-82, yaze yaze yanqaba ukulawula lemfundiso, isekela ikhono likahulumeni lokumangalela ngokwehlukana ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo ngaphansi kombuso nomthetho. Umthetho u-Alito, ebhalela iningi, wagcizelela ukuthi imfundiso ehlangene isekelwe "eqinile" emlandweni wesizwe futhi ukugumbula iphazamisa ukulingana kwezwe phakathi kwezwe.

Kubenzi bokuzivikela, uGama olugcizelela isidingo sokucabangela ngokucophelela amacala kahulumeni angase abekwe ngisho nangemva kokuba uhulumeni ukhululiwe noma ugunyaziwe. Ukubuswa okumbaxambili kusho ukuthi ukuvalelwa akuzinzi uhulumeni uvale ukuqulwa, futhi ukuqiniseka kukahulumeni akuvimbeli ukubekwa icala kwe-guant ngokuziphatha okufanayo. Lokhu kugcizelela ukubaluleka kokucabangela isimiso sokuzivikela, ukunxuselana kwezivumelwano ezihlanganisa kokubili amakhosi, nesinqumo esingokomthetho esiphathelene nokuthi isiphi isigaba esiphethe kuqala.

Isifundo sendaba 4: .eager v. United States (2009) – Izimemezelo ezishintsha-shintshayo neCollateral Estopel

Ukuhlangana kwesinqumo esingavumelaniyo ne-unteral estoppel kwahlolwa ekumangalweni kuka F. Scott Yeager, owayengumphathi we-Entron. Yeager wazanywa emacaleni amaningi ahlobene nokukhwabanisa ngezango nokuhweba ngaphakathi. Ijaji lamkhulula emacaleni okukhwabanisa kodwa lalenga ezindabeni ezingaphakathi. Uhulumeni wafuna ukuzama ukuqinisekisa uYeager ngecala lokuhweba ngaphakathi, waphikisa ngokuthi ukuxoshwa akuxazululanga naka ngqa nakancane ukukho okuyisisekelo kwezentengiselwa. UYeager wacela i- Conservatore ehpel ehpel, esho ukuthi inters yayingaqondile ukuthi wayengazikhohli izinhloso.

Ukuhlaziya KweNkantolo Ephakeme

INkantolo, esinqumweni esingu-616-3, yagcizelela ukuthi uhulumeni akanakukwazi ukuphinde aphendule uYeager. Iphuzu eliyinhloko laliwukuthi ukumangalelwa kwabahluleli ezinqibeni zokukhwabanisa kwakwenqaba ngokuphelele ukuba khona kwecebo lokukhohlisa elaliyisici esidingekile futhi esiyingxenye yecala lokuhweba. INkantolo yagcizelela ukuthi ukubala okulengiwe akumele kumelele ukuthola iqiniso evunayo nganoma yiliphi iqembu futhi akunakuphazamisa umphumela ophelele wokungakhonziwa yisigebengu. Leli cala linikeza isifundo esibucayi: lapho amajaji ebuyisa izigwebo ezixube ngeminxeba futhi elenga, ukulahlwa kwecala kungavimbela ukugcinwa kwecala uma izindaba eziyiqiniso zihlangene ngokwanele.

Isifundo sendaba 5: Blueford v. Arkansas (2011) – Amaqulu eMissions nama-Immoreding

Ukusebenzelana phakathi kwecala elingalungile nezingozi ezimbili kwahlolwa ecaleni lika-Alex Blueford, owamangalelwa ngokubulala inhloko- dolobha futhi wabekwa icala eliphansi. Phakathi nokuhlola, abahluleli babika ukuthi kwakuhlangene ngokubulala inhloko- dolobha nokubulala kokuqala nokubulala kokuqala kodwa kwaboshwa ngokubulala abantu. Inkantolo yokuqulwa, ngemva kokuhluleka ukuthola isinqumo sokubulala abantu ngokubulala, yakhipha icala elingafanele kuzo zonke iziphakamiso. Izwe labe selifuna ukucela uBlueford ukuba abulawe ngokufa kanye nokubulala kokuqala. Isivikelo sathi ukubulala kwabantu okungamangalelwayo kwamacala amakhulu kakhulu akwakwakwakwakwamukelwa, ukuqulwa futhi kuqulwa futhi kwamacala.

Ukulahlwa Kwenkantolo Kwamlahla

INkantolo Ephakeme, esinqumweni esingu-616-3, yathi umbiko wesihlengo sokwahlulela ngokumelene namacala amakhulu awukona ukuvala icala okungokomthetho. Ngoba abahluleli abazange basibuyise isinqumo esibhaliwe kulezo ziphakamiso futhi ukuqulwa kwecala kwakhishwa ngenxa yecala eliphelele elisele, izingozi eziphindwe kabili azizange zivale inkantolo. UJaji omkhulu uRoberts wabhala ukuthi "isikhombisi sokuqala sejaji esifakwe kancane asisho ukulahlwa kwecala elithile." Lokhu kubonisa ukubaluleka kwesigwebo esingokomthetho nemingcele esikisela ukulahlwa uma kuqulwa ngokungafanele.

Isifundo secala 6: [[QULT: 0] Currier v. Virginia (2088) – I-Waiver ye-Jeopardy ka-2

Isimiso sokuthi isivikelo sengozi ephindwe kabili singayekwa ngaphansi kwezimo ezithile savivinywa ecaleni likaMichael Currier, owamangalelwa ngokugqekeza nokubulala amabhungane. Inkantolo yamacala, ukunqabela kukaCurrier, ukumelana nomthetho kaCurrier, savumela ukushukuma komshushisi ukuba azame ukumangalela ngokwehlukana. Ekuqulweni kokuqala, uCurrier wakhululwa ekugqeni icala. Ekuqulweni kwecala lesibili lokuqulwa kwecala lokugqekeza amabhunga, uCurrier waphikisa ukuthi ukugqekeza isigwebo secala kwanqanda isifundazwe isifundazwelo noma wayekhona yini esigcabeni. Izinkantolo zaseVirginia zawenqaba le mpikiswano, neNkanto ephakeme ekugcineni yathiwe ukuhluleka ukuvala ukumangalelwa kwamacala, iCurri yavuma ukuhlukaniswa futhi yavuma nanoma isiphi isiphi isigwebo sesibili ngokumangalelwa.

Izifundo Eziwusizo Zeseluleko Sokuvikela

I-Currier isebenza njengesixwayiso secala eliqondiswe abameli abavikelayo. Uma inkantolo ikhipha izikhalo zokungamela ummangalelwa, izivikelo eziphindwe kabili zezingozi zihlala zingashintshi. Kodwa uma imvume yokuvikela yokususa izizathu zobuqili [[FLT]] njengethemba lokungamangalelwa komthetho owodwa ongase ube nomphumela osobala. Icala liqinisa isidingo sokwenqaba okucacile embhalweni nokucabangela ngokucophelela ukuhlangana phakathi kwemicikilisho ehlukene nezingozi ezimbili. Iseluleko sesivikelo kumelwe sihlole ukuthi ukufuna ukuvinjelwa okuhlukene okubeka izingozi ekunciphekeni ukuvinjelwa okwesibili okusekelwe ekuvalweni kokuqala.

Ukuhlolwa kwecala 7: [[QULT: 0] Isigodo Uvivinyo – ukunquma "I-Same suppose"

Ithuluzi elibucayi ekuhlaziyweni kabili kwengozi yi-' ukuhlolwa okungaqinisekiyo , okusungulwe . United States[FLT]] [1932]). Lokhu kuhlola kubuza ukuthi icala ngalinye lidinga ubufakazi bento engabangelwa yinye. Uma icala ngalinye liqukethe isici esisodwa esihlukile, zithathwa njengeziphazamiso ezihlukene ngezinjongo eziphindwe kabili, futhi izijeziso ezihlukene. Ngokuphikisanayo, uma icala elilodwa lihlanganisa ukucasuka kolunye (umqondo owenziwe yizicimbi ezikhutsha ezikhutsha), zifana necala elihlukeneyo, futhi zisebenza ngokuphindiwe.

Isithobo ku Brown v. Ohio (1977])

Indaba kaNathaniel Brown ifanekisa ukuhlolwa kwemoto ekwenziweni. UBrown weba imoto, wayishayela isuka e-Ohio ukuya eNtshona Virginia, futhi wabanjwa ngemva kwesonto. Waqala ukuboshwa ngecala lokujabula (umdubuli) futhi wagwetshwa izinsuku ezingu-30. Lapho ekhululwa, wamangalelwa ngokungenwa ngemoto (umphani) esekelwe ekuntshontshweni kwayo imoto. INkantolo Ephakeme yayiphethe ukuthi ngenxa yokujaha ingenwa yicala elincane lokuntshontsha kwezimoto (ukusho ukuthi zonke izici zenjabulo zazifakwe ekwebeni izimoto. Inkantolo yagcizelela ukuthi ukuhlolwa kwemoto kubhekiswe ezingeniswe ezingeniswe kabili.

Izincwadi Eziwusizo Zokuzivikela Kwezigebengu

Lokhu kuhlola konke kubonisa ubunkimbinkimbi namandla engozi ephindwe kabili njengesivikelo esingokomthetho.

  • Izenzo zomthetho: ukuthatha uhambo lokukhohlisa olusekelwe engozini ephindwe kabili kudinga ukuhlaziywa kokucophelela kwangaphambi kwenqubo, kuhlanganise namafomu esinqumo, iziyalezo zokwahlulela, kanye nokuthola okuqondile okunganembile okunganikezwa nganoma ikuphi ukukhulula.
  • Ukuhlaziya kwe-CParaori estopel:[ Ngemva kokuthethelelwa, iseluleko sokuvikela kumelwe siphawule izindaba eziyiqiniso ezixazululwe ngesinqumo futhi sinqume ukuthi lezompikiswano ezifanayo zibalulekile kunoma iziphi izikhalo ezikhona noma ezilindelwe.
  • Izindaba kanye nezinqumo: Lapho kumenyezelwa amaphutha ngenxa yamajaji alengisiwe, isivikelo kufanele sicabangele ukuthi i-lock efileyo iyisidingo esisobala sokuthethelela inqubo engalungile, noma ukuthi ukuziphatha komshushisi kwabangela ukuqulwa okungalungile, okungabangela ukuqulwa okungaphinde kuxazululwe ngaphansi Oregon v. Kennedy[[FL:3] [192]
  • Ukuqaphela ubukhosi obuvamile: [ukwenqabela ukubusa okumbaxambili, iseluleko sokuvikela kumelwe silindele ukuhileleka kukahulumeni ngisho nangemva kwemicimbi kahulumeni, ikakhulukazi ezimweni ezihilela izibhamu, izidakamizwa, noma ezentengiselwano zamazwe ahlukene.
  • Izingozi: Isivumelwano sokunquma amacala noma ukulingwa okuhlukene kumelwe sihlolwe ngokucophelela ngenxa yemiphumela yaso ekutheni izingozi eziphindwe kabili esikhathini esizayo.

Isiphetho: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Njalo Kokuba Yingozi Kabili

Izibalo eziphindwe kabili zengozi zihlala zingezinye zezivikelo ezibaluleke kakhulu zomthetho-mthetho-mthetho ezisemthetho-mthetho wobugebengu, ziqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni akanakuwasebenzisa kabi amandla akhe okufaka abantu emacaleni aphindaphindiwe ukuze benze okufanayo. Ukuhlola kwahlola lapha `kusukela ku-ashe v. ku-Aspeasson[ [kuyi-[FLT]] [i-gququququ] ku-v. Isivikelo esiyisisekelo sokuzama kabili ukukhunjulwa okufanayo. [United States [kubelwa]] [kuthathwa inkolelo yokuziphendukela kwemvelo kanye nokusebenza kwayo okuwusizo. Nakuba kuvela ezimweni eziyinkimbinkimbi.

Ukufundwa okwengeziwe ngalendaba kuhlanganisa isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ku-Ashe v. SUNTson (70), Cornell Information Institute yokucaciswa kwengozi ephindwe kabili[, kanye nekaMnyango woMahluleli Icebo lezezingozi eziphindwe kabili[[FLT]].