Imvelaphi Yokwehlukana Kwemfundiso Yamandla

Ukwahlukana kwemibuso akuyona into esungulwe namuhla; izimpande zayo zisefilosofini yasendulo. U-Aristotle wachaza uhulumeni oxubene ohlanganisa ububusi, ubucukubhede, nombuso wentando yeningi, kodwa uhlelo lwanamuhla olucaciswe ngokungenakugwenywa phakathi noKhanyiselwa. UBaron de Montesquieu, emsebenzini wakhe ka 1748 Umoya woMthetho , waphikisana ukuthi ukuhlanganiswa kwemibuso yonke, i-Provinion, namandla okwahlulela ezandleni ezifanayo ngokungenakugwenywa kuholela ekukhandlekeni. Imibono yakhe ithonya kakhulu amaMelika, afaka imfundiso eU.S. Umthetho-Constitution I, II, kanye ne-IIII. UJakobe u-Mascif 47 ubhale ku-No. Ukuhlanganiswa kwesizwe ngasinye, ukuhlelwa kwezimiso zezombangazwe.

Injongo eyinhloko yalokhu kuhlukana kokwakha ikabili: ukuvimbela noma iliphi igatsha ekubuseni futhi ukuphoqelela amagatsha ukuba asebenzelene, kuveza ukubusa okungalawuleki nokulinganisela ngokwengeziwe. Uma imingcele phakathi kwamagatsha ifiphazeka, isimiso se-checks nokulinganisa okuklanyelwe ukugcina ukulingana kusehla. Ukuqonda imiphumela yalowo mphambathiswa kubalulekile ukuze kulondolozwe ubuqotho bomthetho-sisekelo.

Amagatsha Amathathu: Indima Echazwayo Nemingcele Yomthetho - sisekelo

Esimisweni sikahulumeni waseU.S., njengasezikhulwini eziningi zentando yeningi, uhulumeni uhlukaniswa ube amagatsha amathathu alinganayo. ngalinye linomsebenzi oyinhloko, kodwa amandla alo ahambisana ngezindlela ezibangela ukuba kukhululwe.

  • Igatsha eliphethe: Liqondiswa ngumongameli, leligatsha limisa imithetho, liqhuba inkambiso yangaphandle, liyala amabutho, futhi lisebenzisa izinhlangano zikahulumeni. Igunya lalo lihlelwe eSigabeni II soMthetho-sisekelo, esinika umongameli amandla okukhipha imithetho ngokwethembeka, ukumisa izikhulu, nomthetho.
  • Igatsha elinomthetho: Isishayamthetho, esikhiwa yindlu yabameleli neSigele, sinamandla okwenza imithetho (i-Artle I). Silawula futhi uhlelo lwemali, simemezela impi, siqinisekisa ukumiswa kwezikhulu nokwahlulela, futhi sinamandla okuphela kokungayilathisi.
  • Igatsha le-Judicial: Izinkantolo zikahulumeni, eziholwa yiNkantolo Ephakeme, zichaza imithetho noMthetho-sisekelo (Artle III). Ngokubukeza kokwahlulela, amandla asungulwe ku burybry v. Madison [18, izinkantolo zingazenza ize izenzo eziphula umthetho.]

Lezindima azinakuhlukaniswa ngokuqinile; isimiso sidala ukuxabana ngamabomu. Umongameli angakhipha umthetho, kodwa uMkhandlu ungawususa lowo mthetho. Izinkantolo zingashaya imithetho, kodwa uMkhandlu ungahlongoza izinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo ukuze kushintshwe izincazelo zokwahlulela. Lokhu kuncintiswano kuyinjini yokuhlola nokulinganisela.

Ukubusa Kwesikhulu: Lapho uMongameli Ekhipha Igunya

Abaqondisi abaphethe benza izinto ngokuphamba lapho umongameli noma izinhlangano zezombuso zithatha isinyathelo esingaphezu kwegunya elibekelwa uMthetho - sisekelo noma umthetho womthetho.

Izinhlobo Ezivamile Zokubusa Ngokugabadela

  • Izibalo ezilandelanayo neziProjekthi: Abameli bakhipha iziyalo zomphathi ukuba baqondise imisebenzi kahulumeni. Nakuba abaningi begunya lomthetho noma lomthetho-sisekelo, baphamba kwenzeka lapho uhlelo ludala umthetho omusha noma udlulise uKhongolo. Ngokwesibonelo, uhlelo lwe-Truman ka-1952 lokubamba izigayo zensimbi phakathi neMpi yase-Korea lwashaywa yiNkantolo Ephakeme e intsha ephethe i-Stown & Tube Co. sounder[FLT], imboni yezelele ukuthi umongameli ungakwazi ukuthatha izinsimbi zensimbi phakathi nempi ye-Kolonian.
  • Emperency Powers: Phakathi nezinhlekelele (impi, izibhadane, izinhlekelele zemvelo), omongameli bangase bathi bawasuse amagunya aphuthumayo. ISivumelwano se-Emerticementality sonyaka ka-1976 sasihloselwe ukulawula izimemezelo ezinjalo, kodwa amongameli baye bazisebenzisa ngokuphindaphindiwe ekuvuleni amagunya abanzi. Ukusebenzisa kakhulu kungaholela esimweni esihlala njalo esiphuthumayo, ukukhubazekisa inkululeko yomphakathi nokwengamele izakhiwo. Isibonelo esiphawulekayo singuMongameli uTrump ka-2019 wesimende wezente yomnyango wempi, inseleleka yecala.
  • Izinkulumo zophawu: Ngezinye izikhathi abameli bakhipha izinkulumo zokusayina ezimemezela ukuthi azihlosile ukuphoqelela amalungiselelo athile omthetho. Nakuba lokhu kungaba yithuluzi elingokomthetho lokuvikela amalungelo aphezulu, futhi bangasebenza njengohlu lwengxenye, iNkantolo Ephakeme eyayingaluphathi umthetho Clintin v. City of New York[3]
  • [ Ukubekwa kweNgxongo: Lapho umongameli enqaba ukusebenzisa imali evunyelwe yiSishaya-mthetho, kululaza ukulawula ukumiswa kwemithetho phezu kwesikhwama semali. Umthetho wolawulo ka-1964 wavimbela lomkhuba, kodwa izingxabano ziyaqhubeka, njengentethelelo kaMongameli Nixon's eyaholela ekungeneni komthetho.

Ukuhlolwa Kwecala Okungokomlando: I - Nixon Administration and Watergate

Ihlazo le-Watergate limelela isibonelo esiwubuwula sokuphaphanyiswa kwezikhulu kanye nemiphumela yaso. Umongameli uRichard Nixon uphethe uchungechunge lokuxhashazwa, kuhlanganise nokwephulwa ngo-1971 endlunkulu ye-Democratic Committee nesembozo se-ase-ase-compare. Lapho i-Procession iphenduliswa, iNixon yacela ilungelo lokuphatha lokuvimba amakhasethi kanye nezincwadi. INkampathi Ephakeme [FLD] eUnited States v. Nixton[FLT] [12740] [77] yakwenqaba ukubopha imvume yokunikezwa ilungelo eliphelele, iphoqeqelela ukuba ivumelane. Ngokushoshosho kwe-Propole lakuqala ne-U. Umongameli u-Presidentinal.

Izibonelo Zanamuhla: Ukusetshenziswa Okukhulu Kwesenzo Sokuqondisa

Abaholi babo bobabili abahlukene baye basunduza imingcele yegunya eliphethe. Ngokwesibonelo, uMongameli Obama’s Defect for Childhood Agedals (DACA) umthetho owenziwe yisikhulu esiphetheyo ngo-2012, wanikeza isivikelo sesikhashana ekuthunjweni kwezindawo ezizimele ezingeniswe e-DACA, kodwa ukugcinwa okungokomthetho kohlelo lokuqala kusele. Ngokufanayo, uMongameli uBiden waphikisa ukuthi kwakuwukucunuli owesubayo wesinqumo ngokuphumelelayo sokuthuntuthuntuthuntuthu. Inkantolo ephakeme ngo-20202020 yavala umzamo wokuphindela i-Trump i-DACA, kodwa ukukhokhwa kwezelelwa kwezelelwa okungokomthetho kwezelelwe phakathi kwezemfundo yakuqala. Izentengo yomthetho wokufundisa i-Prolencerstrion.[2][12][12]

Ukuwa Kwemithetho: Lapho Ingqungquthela Idlula

Ukungenela umthetho kwenzeka lapho iziNkathi zizama ukuthatha igunya elifanele elingowesikhulu noma lokwahlulela, noma lapho zisebenzisa amandla azo ngezindlela ezilulaza ukuzibusa kwamanye amagatsha.

Ukuqinisekiswa Kwesigele Namandla Agunyazwayo

UMthetho-sisekelo ufuna ukuba iSigele siqondise futhi sivume ukumiswa komongameli nezivumelwano. Nokho, iSigele singasebenzisa leli gunya ngokwenqaba ukuvala icala noma ukwephuza ukugunyazwa isikhathi eside. Lomkhuba, ngezinye izikhathi obizwa ngokuthi “ikhonsathi nesithiyo,” ungenza igatsha elikhulu libe nenkinga yekhono lokuqondisa izinhlangano zezisebenzi ne-judicariary. Ngo-2016, iSigele saseRepublican esilawulwayo senqaba ukuba kuvinjwe umongameli u-Obama's nonomey'umkhandlu weNkantolo Ephakeme, uMerrick Garland, cishe ngonyaka we-a kungathi ukuwohloka kwemibuso ehlukene. Ukuqinisekiswa kuka-Neil Gorbaeveraversavey ngomongameli we-20171717, kuqokomisa indlela imidlalo yezehlulelo lezwe lokwahlulela.

Ukuzishaya Indiva Njengesikhali Sezombangazwe

Ukuqapha kuyithuluzi lomthetho-mthetho le House of Messages ukuba isongele izikhulu eziphethe noma ezahlulelo “izigebengu ezinkulu nezingalawuleki.” Nakuba kuhloselwe ukuhlola ukuziphatha okubi, kungasetshenziswa kabi izinjongo zokuhlukanisa. Bobabili uMongameli uAndrew Johnson (oye wagunyazwe ngo-1868 ngenxa yokuphula umthetho we-Tension of Office, kamuva wabusa ngaphandle kwe-Clinton (umthetho ophakeme) futhi uMongameli uBill Clinton (osungulwe ngo-1998) wabhekana nezilingo ezibhekwa njengezinomthenwa ezingongongongongongongo kwezombangazwe. Umongameli u-201919 no-201 (ngoko kusetshenziswa kabi kwamandla nokugqugquzelwa kwemithetho) wandisa ukuphakama kwezwe, ukubuza ukuthi ingabe ukungatholi kwesikhali sezombangazwe kuphendukele isikhali sezombangazwe. I-Creastrustration ingase futhi i-Crion.

Imizamo ye-Iagnolitive Vetoes ne-Line-Vito

Kuwo ka 1970, uKhongolo lwaqala ukusebenzisa i- “FLT" (19983), ukubusa izenzo zomthetho zokubusa ngaphandle kokushaya umthetho omusha. INkantolo Ephakeme yamemezela lomkhuba ukuba awuvumelani nomthetho INS v. Chadha [[1983], ibusa ukuthi noma isiphi isenzo ngethonya lomthetho kumelwe sidlule kuzo zombili izindlu futhi sinikezwe umongameli. Ngokufanayo, iSishaya - Congresss wazama ukunika umongameli unyawo-itento ngo-19969 kodwa iNkantolo Ephakeme yawushaya phansi [[FLT:]] Clinton v. City of New York[FLT][FLD3], iqinisekisa ukuthi umongameli akanakunikezwa izingxenye ezithile zemvume.

Icala Lokwahlulela: Lapho Izinkantolo Zingenela Ngokweqile

Izenzo zokwahlulela zibhekisela ezimweni lapho izinkantolo zidlulela ngalé kokuchaza imithetho futhi zenza ngokuphumelelayo isimiso noma zibhale imithetho.

Izibonelo Zokuhlasela Ngokweqile Kokwahlulela

  • Ibhalwe kuBench: Ku Roe v. Wade [1773], iNkantolo Ephakeme yakha ilungelo elingokomthetho lokukhipha isisu elisekelwe ku-“peniumbra” yamalungelo emfihlo angashiwonga ngokuqondile eMthethweni wezomthetho-sisekelo. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuthi iNkantolo yaqaqa indima yayo ngokubeka umthetho wezwe empikiswaneni ephikisayo, ngokuphumelelayo ukulahla izishaya umthetho. Isinqumo sahlala siphikisana amashumi eminyaka kwaze kwaba yilapho sehlwithwa Kwe. Inhlangano yabesifazane yezempilo [FLD [FLD:] [FLT] [5] [202], ebuye yazimisela impikiswano ngokwayo. Isinqumo sezenziwa ngokwezinye i-Advom.
  • Isakaza amalungelo ngomthetho owenziwe ngeNguqulo: [[FLT:] [[FT:2] [[FT]] Obergefell v. Hodges (2015]), iNkantolo yathola ilungelo elingokomthetho lokushada ngomthetho-wesilisa ngaphansi kweSiphendulo se-Gawulayo se-14. Nakuba igujwalelwa njengokunqoba kwamalungelo omphakathi, isinqumo esifushane senqubo yedemokhrasi ezindaweni lapho isilinganiso somshado sisalokhu siphikisana khona. Inkantolo u-Anton Scilia yaphikisa ngokuthi iNkantolo “iyenze ukuba inkantolo ngokwayo ibe namandla okunquma ukuthi yini okumelwe inqunywe ngabantu baseMelika.”
  • [[FLT: 0] Ukusebenzisa i-Information: [Ku-[FT:2] Ku-[FLT] Kelo v. City of New London (2005], iNkantolo yasekela ukusetshenziswa kwendawo edumile yezentengiselwano zezomnotho, ukuchaza kakhulu ukuthi “ukusetshenziswa komphakathi" kuhlanganisa intuthuko yangasese eveza intela. Lesinqumo sagxekwa kakhulu njengokungayinaki injongo yokuqala yokuthatha u-Claus, kuholela ezindaweni eziningi ekudluliseleni imithetho evimbela ukuquleka okunjalo.

Imfundiso Yokubopha Ehlulelweni

Ukuze balwe nokuthatha isinyathelo sokwahlulela, abahluleli abaningi basekela umbono wokuthi izinkantolo kufanele zilalele izishaya - mthetho noma nini lapho kungenzeka, zinamathele ezicabeni ezilandelanayo, futhi zinqume kahle. Izibonelo ezivelele zihlanganisa ifilosofi kaMahluleli uFelix Frankfurder yokuthatha izintambo zokwahlulela kanye noMahluleli wamuva uRuth Bad Giner Ginsburg umbono wokuthi izinkantolo kufanele zisebenze “njengenhlangano edlulayo engenakushintsha umphakathi. Nokho, umugqa phakathi kwencazelo engokomthetho nenobuqili awukho kahle, futhi impikiswano phakathi kwezenzo zomthetho nemingcele iyaqhubeka ichaza i-Americanvivriprudence.

Imishini Yamasheke Nezilinganiso

Umthetho-sisekelo unikeza igatsha ngalinye amathuluzi okumelana nokuphanjwa ezinye. Ukuqonda lezi zinqubo kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuthi isimiso kufanele siqondiswe kanjani.

  • Presidential Veto: Umongameli angabuyisela isikwele kuKhongolo ngempi. UKhongolose angakhipha iveto ngenani eliphindwe kathathu emagumbini womabili. Lomandla aqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho ubonakalisa ukuvumelana okukhulu.
  • Ukulawula okungalawuleki: UKhomishane ungahlola izenzo zobuphathi ngokulalela, izipopo, nemibiko. Ihhovisi le-Akhawuntication (GAO) ne-Aspecters General inikeza ukuqondisa okuzimele. Umbuso ulawula futhi uhlelo lwemali, ugodlela izinhlelo ezingagunyazi ukuxhasa izinhlelo.
  • Ukuqinisekisa: ISigele kumelwe sivumele ukugunyaza kwesikhulu esiphezulu nomthetho wezokwahlulela. Lokhu kuhlola kuvimbela umongameli ekusebenziseni uhulumeni nezinkantolo ezifuna imibono eqinile.
  • Ukuhlanganisa nokususa: Indlu ingazilimaza izikhulu zikahulumeni ngenxa yokuziphatha okubi, futhi iSigele singazisusa ngevoti eyisithathu ezimbili. Lamandla asebenza kumongameli, isekela likamongameli, abahluleli, nezinye izikhulu zomphakathi.
  • [[FLT: 0] Jodicial Review:[ Izinkantolo zingamemezela izenzo zokuqondisa noma imithetho ukuthi ayivumelani nemithetho. Amandla eNkantolo Ephakeme okuhlola ukwahlulela, aqinisekiswe [ Marbury v. Madison, mhlawumbe i-eview ye-cheme kakhulu kwamanye amagatsha.
  • Isichibiyelo sombuso: Isishaya-mthetho singahlongoza ukubuyiselwa komthetho-sisekelo ngevoti ephindwe kabili ezindlini zombili, noma umhlangano ungabizwa ngama-3-3 ezindlu zomthetho zikahulumeni. Iziphendulo zingaziguqula izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme (umz., iSichibiyelo se 16 se-Prefecta se-Progs Pollock v.irmer’s Loan & Trust.[FLD:3]] ngentela eholweni).

Le mihlola iphumelela kuphela uma igatsha ngalinye lizimisele ukuyisebenzisa futhi lihlonipha umthetho.

Ukuhlola Izenzakalo Emhlabeni Wonke

Imibuso eminingi ebusa ngentando yeningi ibhekana nezinselele ezifanayo, inikeza izifundo eziqhathanisayo.

IHungary: Ukwanda Kwenkululeko Yokwahlulela

Ngaphansi koNdunankulu uViktor Orbán, iHungary iye yabhekana nokususwa okuhlelekile kokuhlola nokulinganisela. Kusukela ngo-2010, i-Fidesz yakhe iye yasebenzisa ubukhomba bayo obukhulu ephalamendeni ukuze iphinde ibhale umthetho-mthetho, ipakisha inkantolo yomthetho-sisekelo nabagcini be-Primester, futhi isusa inkantolo yokuzibusa. I-European Union iye yazilahla ngokuphindaphindiwe lezizenzo, kodwa inqubo yangaphakathi yokuphoqesha ibuthakathaka. Inqubo yokulawula i-pal-presedrodic ibamba i-"/* /acan i-pane umthetho owenzilenzile ngokomthetho. Inkantolo ye-European Courtus of Justice ne-European Commis isiye yaqala ukuqulwa okungokomthetho, kodwa umonakalo ekubusweni komthetho eHungary ibanzi.

ENdiya: Ukugunyazwa Kwezikhulu Nempi Yokwahlulela

Isimiso sephalamende laseNdiya sigxilisa amandla kumphathi we-Prime Commission nasekhabetheni. Uma nje iqembu elibusayo lisaphethe iningi, eminyakeni yamuva, kuye kwavela ukukhathazeka ngoNdunankulu uNarendra Modi kuhulumeni esebenzisa imithetho ukuze adlulise iPhalamende, unqanda inkululeko yokunyathelisa, futhi ululaza ukuzimela kwe-Ecomment Commission. INkantolo Ephakeme yaseNdiya iye yahlehlela emuva kwezinye izimo, yahlasela icebo lokukhetha eliyimpikiswano elavumela iminikelo engaziwa yezombangazwe. Nokho, i-jadicary ngokwayo ibhekene izinselele zemvume yezemuva nempakatho yezikhulu. Isibonelo se-Indiya sibonisa ukuthi ngisho nezinkantolo eziqinile zomthetho zidinga ukuqaphana isibopho ukuze ilondoloze igunya lazo.

Ukuqaphela Umphakathi Nokuhlanganyela Kwesigqi

Ekugcineni, impilo yokuhlukaniswa kwemibuso ixhomeke ekwakheni izakhamuzi ezinolwazi nezisebenzayo. Uma umphakathi uziqonda izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo, ungaqaphela ukuthi uphaphamele futhi ufune ukulandisa ngokhetho, ukubhalisa, nokubhikisha ngokuthula. Izinhlangano zomphakathi, umshini wokunyathelisa, namayunivesithi azimele asebenza wonke adlala indima ezibalulekile ekuhloleni ukuziphatha kukahulumeni. [[FLT:]] unikeza imithombo yemfundo yezokuhlola nokulinganisela. [[FLT:] [[FLT:]] Ingxenye engokomthetho yezindaba inikeza izinselele zempikiswano engokomthetho. [ngokomlando] [FLT]

Isiphetho: Ukugcina Umthetho - sisekelo

Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso akuyona indlela yokuzihlukanisa; idinga ukunakekelwa njalo kanye nentando yezombangazwe. Uma isikhulu, i-progin, i-progin, noma igatsha lokwahlulela liphambuka imingcele yaso, umonakalo ungaphinde uncishiswe. Iziqondiso ezilawulayo ezivala amakhekheli omthetho, izivimbelelo ezivimbela ukumiswa kokwahlulela, nemithetho yokwahlulela esusa inqubo yentando yeningi konke okuqeda ukuthembela kobudemokhrasi esimisweni. Izenzakalo zibonisa ukuthi isivikelo esiphumelela kakhulu siyinhlanganisela yokuklama kwenhlangano nesabelo sezwe esisebenzayo. Abasunguli baseMelika bakuqonda lokhu, okuyisizathu sokuba badala isimiso sokulwa kwesifiso sokuvelela. Njengezakhamuzi, abafundisi, nabafundi, ukuqonda lamandla kusenza sisebenze ukuze sivikele uhlelo lomthetho. Isikhathi esilandelayo igatsha libonakala lidlula, umbuzo kufanele kube yi-schezuke futhi liziseke, noma liyenzile, futhi liye lalulaza ukuncishwa? Ikhaza?