Isiqalo: Iyini Inkululeko Yangaphakathi?

Inkululeko yomphakathi ixhomeke emalungelweni ayisisekelo nenkululeko evikela abantu ekuphathweni uhulumeni. Lenkululeko esungulwe eMthethweni-sisekelo wase-U.S. iqinisekisa ukuthi amaMelika angakhuluma, akhulekela, ahlangane, futhi aphile ngaphandle kokuphazamisana okungadingekile nombuso. Nakuba ngokuvamile isetshenziswa ngokuhambelana namalungelo , inkululeko yomphakathi ibhekisela ngokukhethekile ekuvikeleni ezinyathelweni zikahulumeni, kanti amalungelo omphakathi ahlanganisa ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo ngaphansi komthetho. Ukuqonda inkululeko yomphakathi kubalulekile kubafundi, abafundisi, nakuzo zonke izakhamuzi ezifisa ukuvikela idemocrali.

UMthetho-sisekelo wawungahlanganisi incwadi yamalungelo; abafaki be-flamers babekholelwa ukuthi isimo sikahulumeni ngokwawo sasizolinganisela amandla. Nokho, phakathi nezimpikiswano zokuhlukanisa, abaphikisi − abamelene ne-AntĭFérélist − banikeza isivikelo esicacile senkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Lokhu kwaholela ekuthatheni iBill of Rights ngo 1791. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, ukuchazwa nokunwetshwa kwalenkululeko kuye kwavela ngokushintsha, imithetho, kanye nemithetho yenkantolo yemithetho.

Imvelaphi Engokomlando Yenkululeko Yombango E - United States

Umqondo wenkululeko yomphakathi eMelika uvela kakhulu emasikweni angokomthetho esiNgisi. uMagna Carta (1215) wamisa isimiso sokuthi ngisho nenkosi yayingaphansi komthetho futhi yaqinisekisa izinqubo ezithile. [ IBhili yesiGrengizimu lamaLungelo [[[FLT]] [1689] amandla alinganiselwe futhi aqinisekisa amalungelo anjengokunxusa inkosi nokuphatha izikhali. Imithetho yemithetho ye-Crigostoli yayivame ukuhlanganisa isivikelo esifanayo, futhi iNguquko yaseMelika yayishoshosho okukhahlela amalungelo ophulwayo, njengokuphesha okungafanelekile nokuthatha impahla.

Phakathi noMhlangano woMthetho-sisekelo ka-1787, abakhi bezakhiwo bagxila ekumiseni uhulumeni oqinile. Nokho ukungabikho komthetho wamalungelo kwaba iphuzu elikhulu. UJames Madison, ekuqaleni engabazanga, wagcina eveze izinguquko eMhlanganweni Wokuqala. Umphumela walokhu walunga-kade oluyishumi . .Impicabadala yamaLungelo yamaLungelo (iSigqizo samaLungelo) bavunyelwa yimibuso ngo-1791. Lokhu kulungisa kwalinganisela ngokuqondile amandla kahulumeni, kuvikela inkulumo, inkolo, ukunyathelisa, ukuhlanganisa, ukunxusa, namalungelo ekwahluleleni.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Abantu: Ukuwohloka Okunemininingwane

IBhili yamalungelo ihlanganisa izinguquko zokuqala eziyishumi zoMthetho-sisekelo. Ushintsho ngalunye lunikeza amakheli akhethekile ezindawo zombuso kahulumeni nenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Ngezansi kuyincazelo ebanzi yento ngayinye.

Isichibiyelo Sokuqala: Inkululeko Yokukhuluma, Yenkolo, Yezindaba, Yomhlangano Neyesicelo

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala mhlawumbe siyinto eyigugu kakhulu. Sinqabela iSishaya-mthetho ukuba senze noma yimuphi umthetho “ukuhlonipha ukumiswa kwamalungelo enkolo, noma ukwenqabela ukusetshenziswa kwayo ngenkululeko; noma ukunqanda inkululeko yokukhuluma, noma yezindaba; noma ilungelo labantu lokuhlangana ngokuthula, nokunxusa uHulumeni ukuba ulungise izikhalo.” Lokhu kuhlenga-mthetho kuvikela inqwaba yamalungelo akhona angekhona hulumeni wentando yeningi. Inkulumo ayihlanganisi nje amagama akhulunywayo kuphela kodwa futhi nezenzo ezingokomfanekiso njengefulegi. I-ace iqinisekisa imithombo yezindaba ukuba ibike ngaphandle kokuvinjelwa. Umhlangano nesicelo sivumela izakhamuzi ukuba ziphikise futhi zifune ushintsho. Nokho, lamalungelo awakho ngokuphelele; iNkakhulu imingcele ephakeme isho i-decconetic, ukugcona, ukukhuthaza ubudlova, nokulwa.

ISichibiyelo Sesibili: Ilungelo Lokuthwala Izikhali

“ IMilitia ebekwe kahle, njengoba idingekile ekulondekeni koMbuso okhululekile, ilungelo labantu lokugcina nokuphatha Izikhali, ngeke lishaywe.” Isichibiyeli Sesibini siye sadala impikiswano enkulu. Kuyi-Digality of Columbia v. Heller [2008] [2008] [iNkantolo Ephakeme], iNkantolo ephethe ukuthi ukunqatshelwa kokuvikela ilungelo lomuntu lokuba nezikhali zakhe siqu ekhaya. Kamuva, [Mcdald v. City of Chicago ] [2010]) yasebenzisa lesivikelo esizweni nasehulumenini ngokwe-Geneardem.

ISichibiyelo Sesithathu: Ukuhlanganiswa Kwamasosha

Lapho isabela emikhubeni yaseBrithani, iSichibiyelo Sesithathu senqabela uhulumeni ukuba aphoqelele abaninimakhaya ukuba bawayise kumasosha asemadodeni asemasha asemadodeni asemasha angaphansi kwemvume.

ISichibiyelo Sesine: Ukufuna Nokuzimela

ISichibiyelo sesine sivikela “ukuphenya okungenangqondo nokuquleka” futhi sidinga izimvume ezisekelwe ngokunokwenzeka. Lokhu kulungisa kuyisisekelo somthetho wanamuhla wemfihlo. Silawula amaphoyisa, ukuqapha kwemishini, nokuqoqwa kwemininingwane yezobuchwepheshe. INkantolo Ephakeme ikwandise isivikelo sokukhipha i-apping ( Katz v. United States, 1967) kanye ne-GPS ukulandelela ([FLT:] United States v. Jones[FLT:], 2012]

ISichibiyelo Sesihlanu: Amalungelo Ecala Lobugebengu

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu sinikeza izivikelo eziningana eziyinhloko: ukumangalelwa abahluleli abakhulu ngenxa yobugebengu obungathi sína; ukuvikelwa emangozini amabili (ukuzanywa kabili ngenxa yecala elifanayo); ilungelo lokuthula (ukungabi namthetho); isiqinisekiso senqubo efanelekile; nokwenqatshelwa kokuthatha impahla yomuntu siqu ngaphandle kokukhokha imbuyiselo (indawo ebanzi). Isixwayiso esidumile “Manda” sisuka Miranda v. Arizona[[FLD:] [196], okufuna amaphoyisa ukuba asole amalungelo awo e-Grandmentation.

Isichibiyelo Sesithupha: Ilungelo Lokuqulwa Kwecala Okungagwegwesi

Lokhu kulunga kuqinisekisa icala lomphakathi elisheshayo nelingakhethi lejaji esifundeni lapho ubugebengu buye baba khona. Kuhlanganisa nelungelo lokutshelwa ngamacala, ukubhekana nofakazi, ukuphoqelela ofakazi ukuba bavikele, nokuba neseluleko esingokomthetho. Gideon v. Wainright [1963], iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi kumelwe inikeze ummeli abamangalelwa abangakwazi ukuthenga.

ISichibiyelo Sesikhombisa: Ukuqulwa Kwamacala Ezakhamuzi

ISichibiyelo Sesikhombisa silondoloza ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala lejaji emacaleni omphakathi lapho lempikiswano ingaphezu kuka - R250 khona.

ISichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili: Unya Nesijeziso Esingavamile

ISichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili senqabela ibheyili ephakeme, inkokhelo ephakeme, nesijeziso esinonya nesingavamile. Siye sasetshenziselwa ukubekela inselele imikhuba enjengesijeziso sokufa kwabancane nakwabakhubazekile ngokwengqondo (]Roper v. Simmons[, 2005; Attins v. Virginia[, 2002]) kanye nezindawo zasejele ezilingana nokuhlushwa.

ISichibiyelo Sesishiyagalolunye: Abantu Bathola Amalungelo

ISichibiyelo se-Ninth sithi ukuhlelwa kwamalungelo athile kuMthetho-sisekelo ngeke “kulahle noma kulahle abanye abantu.” Lokhu kulungisa kuye kwabhekiselwa ekusekeleni amalungelo anganciphisi, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokufihla izindaba zomuntu siqu, ngisho noma izindaba zomuntu siqu zingashiwo ngokucacile kulencwadi.

Isichibiyelo Seshumi: Amandla Agcinelwe Elase - United States

ISichibiyelo Seshumi esigciniwe esigcinwe ezifundazweni noma kubantu asiphathiswanga uhulumeni kahulumeni noma imibuso enqatshelwe.

Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Nokuhlukaniswa Kwenkululeko Yombango

Ekuqaleni, iBill of Rights yasebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kuphela. Izwe lalikhululekile ukungazinaki eziningi zalezisivikelo. Ngemva kweMpi Yombango, iSichibiyelo se-Fourtenth (168] sashintsha lokho. I-Seed Process Claus yalo yenqabela ukuncishwa “noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” INkantombanto ePhakathi Ephakeme kancane kancane “yafaka” amalungiselelo amaningi eBill of Rights [1868] awenqabela uhulumeni wendawo futhi awayise kuhulumeni ngeSiphendulo se-1459.

Inqubo yokuhlanganisa yayikhetha. Maphakathi nekhulu lama-620 leminyaka, cishe wonke amalungelo eBill of Rights afakwa, kuhlanganise neSichibiyelo Sokuqala (1925 ] Gitlow v. New York), iSichibiyelo sesine (49 ] Walf v. ]), kanye neSichibiyelo sesihlanu sokwe-Impuculo (1964] [[FLT] [FLT]] [FLT] [FLT] [5] [5] [intelct] [5] [i-Mc].[5] Develod.[5] [5]

Ukukhululeka Okuyinhloko Kwezakhamuzi Ekujuleni

Ngaphandle kwezinguquko eziqondile, inkululeko ethile yomphakathi idinga ukuhlolisiswa ngokujulile ngenxa yethonya layo elikhulu ekuphileni kwaseMelika.

Inkululeko Yokukhuluma Nokucindezela

ISichibiyelo sokuqala sivikela inkulumo futhi sicindezela ekuhloleni uhulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasungula izimfundiso eziningana zokuchaza lezisivikelo. Contentíng propatiement system[ iyimithetho esekelwe ekuhlolweni ngokungeyomfuneko, futhi kumelwe yanelise “ukuhlola okuqhubekayo”. [uhulumeni kumelwe ubonise isithakazelo esiqinile nokulungisa okuncane. [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [[FLT]]] [[FLT]] [FLT] imingcele yemithetho evimbelayomthetho yecala, njengaleyo evimbela i-[FLT] imithetho ehlolwayodwayo, ibukelwa ngaphansi kokuhlola okuphakathi. [FLT] ngaphandle kokwenyuswa umthetho womphakathi.[19] [2][19]

Kulenkathi yezibalo, imibuzo ephathelene nokukhuluma ezindaweni zomphakathi wezokuxhumana iye yaba yimpikiswano. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yakholelwa ukuthi uhulumeni akanakuvimbela ukukhuluma ngokusekelwe embonweni, kodwa amapulatifomu angawodwa awaboshiwe yiSichibiyelo Sokuqala. Nokho, uma uhulumeni esebenzisa amapulatifomu ukuvimbela inkulumo, kuphakama izimpikiswano zomthetho-sisekelo ([ Packingham v. North Carolina, 2017]),.

Inkululeko Engokwenkolo

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala siqukethe izigaba ezimbili zenkolo: Ukuhlukanisa u-Claus kanye [[FLT]] ne-Free Evision Specience Claus . UMthetho ka-Claus unqabela uhulumeni ukumisa inkolo engokomthetho noma ukusekela enye inkolo phezu kwenye. Inkantolo ivikela ilungelo lomuntu lokuqhuba inkolo ngaphandle kokugxambukela kukahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme izama ukulinganisela lemithetho. [[FLT:] [FLT:]] Ku-Employmentation Division. Smith v[FLT:] [1990], inkantolo yakhipha umthetho ongayithathiwe.[FFoctive]

Ilungelo Lokuba Wedwa

Nakuba ingahlelwanga ngokucacile, ilungelo lokufihla imfihlo lithathwe ku- “i-Boll of Rights, licaciswe okokuqala Griswold v.Connecticut[ [1965] [ukuvimbela inzalo]. Le lungelo lisekela izinqumo zezimpawu zemingcele yenkululeko yokuzala ([]]Roe v., 1973]), ukusondelana okufanayo ([[FLT:] u-Lawrence v.[[FLT]], 2003, kanye nokulinganisa ([FLT]],[FLT]], no-[FLD:6]][FOM]berg v.[FLT][5][5]]

Inqubo Nesivikelo Esifanele

IziNguqulo zesihlanu nezeshumi nane ziqinisekisa inqubo efaneleyo . Izinqubo ezifushanisiwe nemingcele engaphansi kwe-odoli. Inqubo efanelekile idinga ukuqashelwa nokuzwa ngaphambi kokuba uhulumeni aphuce umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Inqubo efunekayo engaphansi kwe-Centus ivikela amalungelo ayisisekelo njengomshado, umkhaya, nokuzibusa ngomzimba ekungeneleni kukahulumeni. [[FLT:] Ukuvikela uClaus [[FLT] [FLT] [125], [5]] nokucwasana ngomthetho [f] kahulumeni idinga ukuba ukuphathwa abantu abasendaweni efanayo.[4] Igumbi eliyitshe lenhlangano yamalungelo ezakhamuzi, elisetshenziselwa ukugadla i-bala ([FLD:]]]Brown.v [FF]]], [5])

Amacala Aphakeme Enkantolo

Izinqumo eziningana zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zathonya ukuchazwa nokusetshenziswa kwenkululeko yomphakathi. Nakhu amanye amacala ayinhloko adlulele ngalé kohlu lokuqala.

  • Gitrow v. New York (1925) - - Isekeli seSichibiyelo Sokuqala senkululeko yokukhuluma sisebenza ezizweni ngeSichibiyelo seshumi nane.
  • Katz v. United States (1967) – Ukubekwa kwemvume kweSichibiyelo sesine esandisiwe kuhlanganisa ukumpompa nge-electronic camptating, kwakha “ukulindela okunengqondo kwemfihlo”.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) – waqinisekisa ilungelo lokwelulekwa kuzo zonke izigebengu, ehlanganisa iSichibiyelo seSithandathu.
  • .Tinker v. Des Moines Independent School Community [1969] - - Ivikelwe inkulumo engokomfanekiso yabafundi (ukunxiba izibambo ezimnyama ukuze kuphikise iMpi yaseVietnam) ngaphandle kokuba iphazamisa kakhulu imisebenzi yesikole.
  • New York Times Co. v. United States (1971) – wenqatshwa ngaphambi kokuba unqatshwe iPentagon Papers, eqinisekisa isivikelo esinamandla sokucindezela inkululeko.
  • Ukuvala v. Virginia (1967) – Ukulahla imithetho evimbela ukushada kwezinhlanga ngezinhlanga njengezenzo eziphulwayo zenqubo efanelekile nesivikelo esilinganayo.
  • I-CITIZENN BONU v.FEC (2010) – Iqinise ukuthi ukuxhasa kwezezimali kwezebhizinisi kwezindaba ezizimele zezombangazwe akunakulinganiselwa ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo Sokuqala, kubhebhethekisa izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo mayelana nezimali zomkhankaso.

Izinselele Zenkululeko Yangaphakathi

Ubuchwepheshe banamuhla, ukusongela kwokulondeka, nokushintsha kwezenhlalo kuyaqhubeka kuvivinya imingcele yenkululeko yomphakathi.

Imfundo Nezindaba Zomuntu Siqu Enkathini Yamanani

Izinhlelo zikahulumeni zokuhlola, njengalezo ezambulwa nguEdward Snowden ngo-2013, ziqoqa inqwaba yemitapo yezingcingo nangomsebenzi we-Intanethi. USUSA PATRIOT Act[FL:1] (2001]) umthetho owengeziwe wokuhlola ngemva kuka-9/11. Izinkantolo ziye zalwa nomthetho omkhulu ukuthi iqoqo lenza iSichibiyelo sesine seSimende. [[FLT:]] [FLT]] I-UTRILINETION [[FT] Inkantolo engu-Surillance [ yenga] yengamela lezinhlelo, kodwa abagxeki benqaba ukuthi iyakulahla ukulandisa. Ngo- 2015, [[FLT] USA UMthetho weNKULUNGILO [[FL:5] [F]] Iqoqo leNSCMALI]

Ukukhuluma Ngokukhululeka Ekamu Nemithombo Yezindaba

Amakholiji aseyizinkundla zezimpikiswano eziphathelene nenzondo nezindawo ezilondekile. Amayunivesithi omphakathi, njengabadlali bakahulumeni, awakwazi ukuvimbela ukukhuluma ngokusekelwe embonweni. Nokho, angabeka isikhathi esinengqondo . iNkantolo Ephakeme ayibusanga ngokuqondile ezindabeni eziphikisanayo ezinjengo “izixwayiso zokuqashelwa” noma“ ukushiyela ukujezisa,” ukushiya izinkantolo eziphansi ukunquma icala. Okwamanje, amapulatifomu ezenhlalo anjenge Facebook and Twitter (manje X) ayizinhlangano ezizimele ezinganelisa impikiswano ngokuthanda kwabo, zinyuse ziveze ngokuqondene nokuhlola inkulumo yezombangazwe. [[FLT:][FLT][FLD [FLD [F:]]][F1] [2]] ukukhipha ukuxhumana okunikeza iziphakamiso ze-Proaticcept, kodwa iziphakamiso ze-ptionsplat, kodwa iziphakaniso ze-progn

Ukukhipha Isisu Nokuzishintsha Ngokuxuba Izisu Ngemva Kwama - dob

Ukugumbuqelwa kwe Roe v. [[FLT]] ku-Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [202]) wabuyisela umthetho wokukhipha isisu ezizweni. Lokhu kuye kwaholela ekuvinjelweni okumbaxa-mbilini kanye nesivikelo. Ngalé kokukhishwa kwesisu, isinqumo saphakamisa imibuzo ebanzi mayelana nelungelo lokuba wedwa nokuthi amanye amalungelo afana yini nomshado owe-62x novimbela inzalo (ukungaphinde kuphinde kubuye kuvuse. [[FLT:]] Inqubo yeSiphetho seSiphakamiso sezehlo. [[FLT:] Fiteth Resmetic Resformation projectivesting [[FLD]]] ihlala impi, kanye nomthetho owethulwayokufundwa ngokunye.

Ukugunyaza Amalungelo Nobuqotho Obuyintandokazi

Ukuqamba kuyilungelo eliyisisekelo, kodwa isivikelo sako siye sancipha futhi sageleza. ISiphakamiso samalungelo sonyaka ka-1965 sasiwumthetho wenkululeko ephawulekayo. [Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi] iShelby County v. I-Hander[ [2013]], iNkantolo Ephakeme yashaya ilungiselelo eliyinhloko elifuna imibuso ethile ukuba ithole ukuvunyelwa kukahulumeni ngaphambi kokushintsha imithetho yokuvota. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, amazwe amaningi aye amisa imithetho ye-ovota, anciphisa ukuvota, futhi akhucula imigqa. Abagxeki baphikisa le nyathelo ngokungenamdlangapheza. [FLT] UJohn Congrectionment [FF] [FF] Act: procence]

Ukulondeka Kobuzwe Nenkululeko Yangaphakathi

Ukulinganisela phakathi kokhuseleko lwesizwe nenkululeko ngayinye kuhlala kubucayi. USUSA Patriot Act no I-Surveillance Act [ imibuso kahulumeni enwetshiwe yokuqondisa ukuxhumana. Ukusetshenziswa kwezinkantolo zezempi ezisolwa amaphekula nejele elinganqamuki eGuantanamo Bay kuye kwabelwa enkantolo. Inkantolo Ephakeme e[FLT:] Hamdi v. Rumsteld[FLT:] [204] [20] [20]) ikholelwa ukuthi izakhamuzi.S. ziboshelwe njengenkani yempi kumelwe ukuba ihlelwe, kuhlanganise neyokunxeka ekubosweni kwayo.

Isiphetho: Ukuvikela Inkululeko Yombango Yezizukulwane Zesikhathi Esizayo

Inkululeko yomphakathi ayimi ndawonye; ishintsha njengoba ushintsho lukhona emphakathini. UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. unikeza uhlelo, kodwa umsebenzi oqhubekayo wezinkantolo, izishaya-mthetho, nabashisekeli baqinisekisa ukuthi lenkululeko iyaqhubeka ibalulekile. Kubafundi nothisha, ukuqonda inkululeko yomphakathi kusho okungaphezu kokukhumbula ngekhanda ukunqandeka okungapheli phakathi kwamandla kahulumeni nokuzibusa komuntu ngamunye. Njengoba kuvela ubuchwepheshe obusha nezinsongo, izimiso ezibekwe kuyiBill of Rights ziyoqhubeka zivivinywa. Izakhamuzi ezihlala zifundile futhi ziboshelwe zingabavikeli abangcono kakhulu benkululeko yazo siqu.

Ukuze ufunde okwengeziwe, hlola umbhalo ogcwele weBill of Rights e Izinqolobane zesizwe , uhlola izifushaniso zezindaba eziyinhloko zeNkantolo Ephakeme iproject [, futhi ufunde ngezinkinga zamanje zenkululeko yomphakathi nge- American Liberation Union[. Lemithombo inikeza ukunyukela kakhulu emacaleni, imithetho, nezimpikiswano ezibumba inkululeko yaseMelika.