Umqondo wokuhlola nokulinganisela uyitshe lesisekelo soMthetho-sisekelo we-United States, oklanyelwe ukuvimbela noma yiliphi igatsha likahulumeni ukuba libuyise amandla anganqandeki. Le ngxenye isekelwe kuyifilosofi yezombangazwe kaMontesquieu futhi yacwengisiswa oFata abaFundayo, lesimiso sihlukanisa igunya phakathi kwe-projekthi, isikhulu, namagatsha okwahlulela. Igatsha ngalinye linemibuso ehlukile, kodwa linamandla okulinganisela izenzo zabanye. Le ngxoxo iqinisekisa ukuthi ukubusa kuhlala kuhambisana, kunesibopho, futhi kuvikele inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Ukuqonda indlela igatsha ngalinye elihlola ngayo abanye okubalulekile ekuqondeni amandla ombuso wentando yentando yeningi yaseMelika.

Igatsha Elingokomthetho: Ingqungquthela Njengegatsha Lokuqala

Igatsha lemithetho, ngokuyinhloko elakhiwe yi-Congress, linomthwalo wokwenza imithetho. Linezindawo ezimbili: iSigele neNdlu yabameleli. Lesi sakhiwo ngokwaso sisebenza njengesehlo sangaphakathi, njengoba zombili izindlu kumelwe zivumelane ngomthetho ngaphambi kokuba zithunyelwe kuMongameli. Ngalé kokubekwa kwemithetho, uMkhandlu uphethe amathuluzi amaningana anamandla ukuze uhlole amagatsha aphethe nawahluleli.

Engawanaki amaVetoes

UMongameli angase akhiphe noma isiphi isibambiso esidluliswa yiSishaya-mthetho, kodwa ukuthi iveto ayiphelele. ISishaya-mkhandlu singathatha indawo kamongameli ngokuvota kwenani eliphindwe kathathu eMzini naseSikhungweni. Lokhu kudinga ukuvota okukhulu kakhulu, okwenza kube nzima ukufinyelela kodwa kube nzima uma kunesivumelwano esinamandla. Ukudumba okungokomlando akuvamile kodwa kubalulekile, njengokubusa kukaMongameli Andrew Johnson kuwenu we-veto ka-gavil Act ka-Rhwebom ka-1866, okwasiza ekumiseni amalungelo esizwe aseMelika.

Amandla Okuzikhandla

Indlu yabameleli inamandla okuqeda izikhulu zikahulumeni, kuhlanganise noMongameli, uMongameli ongumphelelisi, namajaji. Ukuqulwa kwecala kufana nokubekwa icala. Khona - ke iSigele siqunga icala, siphethe amavoti amabili-mithathu adingekayo ukuze kutholwe isiqinisekiso futhi kususwe esikhundleni. Lenqubo iye yasetshenziswa ngokumelene noMongameli uAndrew Johnson, uBill Clinton, noDonald Trump (ice), nakuba kungekho Presidenti owakelelwa icala. Igunya elikhonzwayo lisebenza njengenhlolo olusemthethweni ekusebenziseni kabi amandla, inkohlakalo, noma ubugebengu obukhulu.

Ukuqinisekiswa kokunqunyelwa

ISigele kumelwe siqinisekise abaningi bamalungu kaMongameli, kuhlanganise namalungu eKhabhinethi, abahluleli bakahulumeni, namanxusa. Lendima “imvume nemvume” ivumela iSigele ukuba sihlole izimfanelo ze-Extenstein kanye nokuthambekela kwezombangazwe. Inqubo yokuqinisekisa ingaba nengxabano, njengoba ibonakala ezimpini ezithathe isikhathi eside eNkantolo Ephakeme njengoRobert Bork ngo 1987 noBrett Kavanough ngo-2018. Ngokulahla noma ukunqikaza ama-mine, i-gea ingalongalawula iziqondiso zezikhulu negatsha enkantolo.

Ukulawula Ukukhokhwa Kwemali

ISishaya-Mkhandlu siphethe amandla esikhwama semali − sigunyaza yonke intela kahulumeni. Lokhu kunikeza igatsha elikhulu lemithetho phezu kwegatsha eliphethe. Ngaphandle kokushaya indiva, izinhlangano eziphetheyo azinakusebenza ngokuphumelelayo. Uma uMongameli enqaba ukusebenzisa imali njengesiqondiso soMkhandlu, uMkhandlu ungasebenzisa amandla awo okuqondisa ukuphoqelela ukukhonzwa. Izimpikiswano zemali ziye zaholela ekuvinjweni kukahulumeni, njengoba kwenzeka ngo-2013 nango-202019, ebonisa ubunzima bale sheke.

Ukugada Nokuphenya

UKhomishane unegunya lokuhlola igatsha eliphethe futhi ubambe izikhalo. Amakomiti azimele avamile afaka izincwadi ezingaphansi kwe-poena futhi abize ofakazi ukuba bahlole ukufezwa kwezimiso, okuthiwa ukuziphatha okubi, noma ukungcola. Izibonelo eziphezulu-seprofile zihlanganisa ukuqulwa kwecala le-Iran-Contrate, ukuhlola, nekomiti ye-6 kaJanuwari. Ukubekwa isombuluko kuqinisekisa ukucaca nokulandisa, kuphoqelele umphathi ukuba athethelele izenzo zakhe.

“ Ukunqwabelana kwayo yonke imibuso, imithetho, isikhulu, nenkantolo... kungabizwa ngokufanelekile ngokuthi yona kanye incazelo yobushiqela.” — James Madison, Federal List No. 47

Igatsha Eliphethe: UBuphathi Njengesisindo Esimelana Nesimo

Igatsha eliphethe, eliholwa uMongameli wase - United States, linomthwalo wemfanelo wokumisa imithetho. Imibuso kaMongameli inamandla, kodwa ihlolwa yikho kokubili iSishaya - mthetho nejaji. Imishini eyinhloko yegatsha eliphethe ihlanganisa i -veto, iziyalezo eziphethe, ukumiswa, nokugcinwa kwamaphoyisa.

Amandla E - Veto

UMongameli angasenqaba noma isiphi isikweletu esidluliswa yiKhongolo, asivimbele ukuba sibe umthetho ngaphandle kokuba i-spective. Lo mnyango wamandla uphoqelela ukuba ucabangele izinto eziza kuqala zikaMongameli futhi uxoxe. Kunezinhlobo ezimbili ze-vetoes: iveto evamile, ebuyisela isikweleti eKhongomeni, nethina ekhukhwini, eyenzekayo lapho uMongameli engenzi lutho phakathi nezinsuku eziyishumi lapho uMkhandlu uvikishelwa, ngokuphumelelayo ukubulala lomthetho. Abanye ababusi bakahulumeni banomugqa-otatoes, kodwa iNkanto ephakeme inqume ukuthi i-teinfontry commentation ([FLD: 0]) i-Clinton ([FLD].Clinton City of New York,[FFFFF1]).

Ukuhleleka Okuphethe

Abaholi banganikeza iziyalo zezikhulu zokuqondisa izinhlangano zikahulumeni ekusebenziseni imithetho noma ekufezeni isimiso. Lemiyalo inamandla egatsheni eliphetheyo kodwa kumelwe ibekwe egunyeni elikhona lomthetho noma eMthethweni. Iziqondiso eziphethe zingabekelwa inselele enkantolo noma zigumbuqelwe umthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, uMphathiswa uFranklin D. Roosevelt’s Educision Order 9066, owagunyaza i-actal phakathi neMpi Yezwe II, kamuva walahlwa kakhulu futhi wabekwa ngaphansi kokubukezwa kweNkantolo Ephakeme. Umongameli uBack Oma, wavinjwa ngokwengxenye yinkantolo kahulumeni ukuba asebenzise iziyalezo zokufuduka.

Ukumiswa Kwabahluleli

UMongameli umisa wonke amajaji kahulumeni, kuhlanganise namajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme. Lo mbuso uvumela uMongameli ukuba amise ikomiti yamajaji amashumi eminyaka, njengoba ukumiswa kokwahlulela kuhlala kukho konke. I-mine ingaphansi kokuqinisekiswa kweSigeqe, ukwenza ishekethi eliqondile ngegatsha lemithetho. Ijaji, lingase lihlole uMongameli ngokunquma ukuthi izenzo zokuphatha azivumelani nemithetho. Ngaleyo ndlela inqubo yesivumelwano yakha isimiso esiqinile sokulinganisa imingcele.

Amandla Omthetho Ongawasebenzisi Angaphandle Nomyali

UMongameli ukhonza njengenhloko yamabutho ahlomile nenkambiso yezomthetho wakwamanye amazwe, kuhlanganise nokwenza izivumelwano (ngeseluleko seSigele nangemvume) kanye nokuqaphela ohulumeni bakwamanye amazwe. Nokho, iSishaya-Mkhandlu kuphela esingamemezela impi futhi sixhase amabutho ezempi. Lokhu kucindezeleka kuye kwaholela ezimpini zemibuso yempi, njengeMpi yaseVietnam nokungenela kwango-2011 eLibya. ISigqi samandla sombuso sango-19373, sazama ukubuyisela igunya le-bukhompunga ngokufuna uMongameli ukuba azise iSishayamthetho phakathi namahora angu-48 okuthatha amabutho futhi aphumele amabutho ngemva kwezinsuku ezingu-60 uma iSishayamthetho singagunyazinzi isenzo esiqhubekayo.

Amandla EPardon

UMongameli unamandla okuthethelela izono zikahulumeni, ngaphandle kwezimo zokungavumelani. Lamandla angokomthetho asebenza njengendlela yokuhlola inkantolo ngokuvumela uMongameli ukuba alawule izinkolelo noma imisho engekho. IControversers, njengoMongameli Gerald Ford ukuxolelwa kukaRichard Nixon noMongameli uDonald Trump, kubonisa ubukhulu baleligunya. Nakuba amandla okuthethelela ngokuyinhloko engalawulwa, angaphansi kombono womphakathi futhi angayikhohlakaza imiphumela yezombangazwe.

Igatsha Lokwahlulela: INkantolo Ephakeme Njengommeli

Igatsha lokwahlulela, eliholwa iNkantolo Ephakeme, lichaza imithetho futhi liqinisekisa ukuthi ivumelana noMthetho-sisekelo. Ngokuhlola kokwahlulela, izinkantolo zingazenza ize kokubili izenzo zezikhulu zemithetho nezikhulu. Ijaji liklanyelwe ukuba lizimele, abahluleli abakhonza izintambo zokuziphatha okuhle ukuze libavikele ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe.

Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela

Amandla okuhlola kokwahlulela amiswa ecaleni eliyingqophamlando uMarbury v. Madison (103). IJaji eliyinhloko uJohn Marshall wamemezela ukuthi kuwumsebenzi womnyango wokwahlulela ukusho ukuthi umthetho uyini, futhi uma umthetho uphula umthetho, iNkantolo kumelwe iwushaye phansi. Lendaba yabeka isiqalo sezinkantolo zikahulumeni sokuqeda imithetho engekho emthethweni. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, iNkanto ePhakathi Ephakeme iye yabulala amakhulukhulu emithetho kahulumeni nemithetho kahulumeni, kuhlanganise nomthetho omusha we-Diarector ku-1930 ku-tegomentium ka-1998.

Ukuchazwa Kwemithetho

Izinkantolo kuwo wonke amazinga zichaza imithetho, imithetho yezinhlangano, nezimiso zomthetho-sisekelo. Izinqumo zazo zingaba nemiphumela egcwele kakhulu ezimisweni. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuchaza kweNkantolo Ephakeme iCommerce Claus en Wickard v. Filburn (42)[FL:1] kwandisa amandla kahulumeni okulawula, kuyilapho izinqumo zamuva ezifana ne- National Federation of Independent Business v. Selius (] ukunciphisa izinga lamandla eSivumelwaneni ngaphansi kwe-Mountal Claus. Inkantolo futhi ichaza incazelo yemithetho engacacile, ngezinye izikhathi inqumo enquma imiphumela enjenge-Prouvery Congresssion.

Ukuvikelwa Kwamalungelo

Ijaji liyindawo ebalulekile yokuvikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye ngokumelene nohulumeni. Ngezimo ezinjenge Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ [1954], i-Manda v. I-Arizona [1966], [[FLT:] [4]] i-Obergefell v. Hodges[ (20), iNkantolo Ephakeme iqhube isivikelo somthetho-mthetho-mthethweno, inqubo efanelekile, nemfihlolo. Lezi zinqumo ngezinye izikhathi ziyaphikisana nokukhetha kwemithetho ye-mthetho, kodwa izibophophopho ngaphandle kokugumbulwa kweNka kweNkandlu noma iNkathi elandelanayo.

Ukuhlola Amandla Okubusa

UKhongolo-mthetho alukwazi ukumisa imithetho ephula umthetho. INkantolo inquma ukuthi umthetho udlula igunya lobukhonya noma uphule amalungelo. Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo iye yawisa imithetho elawula ukuphatha izibhamu eduze kwezikole ( United States v. Lopez, 1995) kanye namalungiselelo eSigebengu sobudlova esimelene nabesifazane ( United States v. Morrison, 2000] [amandla adlula kakhulu amaKhomishane. Ngokuphikisana, iNkantolo iye yaphakamisa amandla kahulumeni kwezinye izindawo, ibonisa isenzo sokulinganisela ngokucophelela.

Ama - expoir Amandla Okubusa

Ijaji libuye libeke imingcele yezenzo zezikhulu. INkantolo ingavimba iziyalezo zezikhulu ezidlula igunya elingokomthetho noma ukuphula amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo. Intsha esemgwaqweni we-Stown Sheep & Tube. Co. Sawimer (1952], iNkantolo Ephakeme yazenza impoqo ye-Puntarence Truman ingasebenzi kahle imishini yensimbi phakathi neMpi yaseKorea. Ngokufanayo, iNkantolo ibukeze iziboshwa eGuatánamo Bay, inquma ukuthi ababambenewa banelungelo lokungalawuleki ([[FLTLD:]]BExmedienquee. v[FLT]]], 2008, lezi zinqumo ezibonisa ukuthi uMongameli akanawombuso umbangame.)

Ukungenela Phakathi Kwamagatsha: Isimiso Esinamandla

Ukusebenzelana phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu kwenza ukuqina okuqhubekayo kwamandla. Igatsha ngalinye kumelwe lisebenze ndawonye ukuze lilawule ngokuphumelelayo, kodwa ukungezwani kokwakha ngokuvamile kuholela ezimpikiswaneni nasekuxoxiseni. Lokhu kuxhumana kuchaza ukusebenza kwangempela kwezwe lokuhlola nokulinganisela.

Ukungenela Kwemithetho

UKhongolose kanye noMongameli bavame ukubambisana ukuze bakhiphe umthetho, kodwa ukungezwani kungaholela ekuthatheni imingcele futhi kuthathe impumelelo. Inqubo yaminyaka yonke yokusetshenziswa kwemali ifushanisa lokhu kucindezeleka. UMongameli uhlongoza uhlelo lwemali, kodwa uKhongolo-kanise ngokukhipha izindleko zemali. Uma uMongameli esongela i-veto, izingxoxo ezilandelanayo. Emashumini eminyaka amuva, ukunqanda ukuhlelwa kwemali kuye kwaholela ekuqhubekeni kwesinqumo, i-omnibbis ukuchitha izikweleti, nokucima. Ngaphezu kwalokho, igatsha eliphethe kumelwe lisebenzise imithetho njengebhaliwe, kodwa linekhono lokulawula ukugcinwa kwemithetho yemithetho ye-a Congresssion (a) ingavimbela ukulawulwa kweminye imibandela nokubekwa kwemithetho.

Ukungenela Kwezokwahlulela

Igatsha eliphethe liphoqelela ukuba kumiswe imithetho yokwahlulela, kodwa futhi lithonya ukumiswa kwemithetho ngezikhathi zokumiswa. Abameli bangahlela amajaji avumelana nefilosofi yabo engokomthetho, kanjalo balolonge incazelo yomthetho-sisekelo yesikhathi esizayo. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme ingabulala izenzo zezikhulu, njengoba kwenza uMongameli Trump ukuvinjelwa kohambo v. Hawaii [2017] [2017]) (nakuba iNkathi iNkathi iNkantolo ekugcineni isekela inguqulo ebukeziwe). Ilungelo lokusholo kaMongameli lokulawula ukugcinwa kwenkululeko yokuxhumana phakathi kwezwe. [[FLT] [FLD:2] [FFFF:2] United States v [12][FLT] [12] [19997], lapho i-Proudentium) ikhipha khona ilungelo lokuveza i-kadensile, i-Predensidensidentium, i-Prence, i-Prensidentium, i----

Interprecive yokwahlulela

UKhongolo lungasabela ezinqumweni zokwahlulela ngezindlela eziningi. Lungasikisela ukulungisa komthetho-mthetho ukugumbuqela izinqumo, njengeSichibiyelo se 11 (ukushintsha ] Chashicholm v. Georgia) neSichimende se 14 (ukushintsha Dred Scott v. Sandford)]. Inxanxathela enkulu, ingenza umthetho omusha wokuguqula inqubo yenkantolo, njengoba yenza ngeSivumelo seNkathi senkululeko engokwenkolo yokwamukelwa kwango 1993 ngemva kwesinqumo seNkanto ephakeme [FLT]. [FLT] [FLT]] [FLT] [FFF:] [1990]) iyakwazi ukuguqula amandla enkantolo, nakuba ingenakuwasusa inkantolo engokomthetho engokomthetho.

Ukuhlukana Kwamandla Enqubo: Izibonelo Eziyinhloko

Izenzakalo eziningana eziphawulekayo zibonisa indlela esisebenza ngayo lesi simiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela:

  • I-New Deal Crisis (1930s): uMongameli Franklin Roosevelt wasikisela umthetho wezezomnotho okhuphulayo, iNkantolo Ephakeme eyawushaya njengengavumelani nemithetho. Roosevelt yaphendula ngesicelo “sokuveza izintambo zekhonto, impoqo, i-Congrrence eyasenqaba. Lokhu ekugcineni kwaholela ekutheni “kugqilazeni ngesikhathi esasindisa isishiyagamu,” njengoba iNkantolo iqala ukusekela imithetho emisha ye-Ireal, ibonakalisa ukucindezela kwezombangazwe ngokukhululeka kwezehlulelo.
  • Watergate (1973-1974): Umnyango wahlola ukuhileleka kwe-Nixon ye-Watergate-in. INkantolo Ephakeme yayala uMongameli uNixon ukuba akhiphe amatepi aqoshiwe, okwaholela ekuyekeni kwakhe. Inqubo yokulahla i House yayiyi-enquisition eqondile egunyani lezikhulu.
  • Act Affordble Care Act (202): Congress yadlula i-ACA ngo-2010. Izinselele eziningi zomthetho zafinyelela eNkantolo Ephakeme, eyasekela ukugunyazwa komuntu njengentela kodwa ukwanda kweMedicaid okulinganiselwe. Amagatsha ezombangazwe ashintsha izingxenye zomthetho ekusabeleni ezinqumweni zenkantolo.
  • Ilungelo eliphetheyo ne-Congregational Oversect (209-2020): Phakathi nokuqashwa kokuqala kukaMongameli Donald Trump, igatsha eliphethe lenqaba ukuhambisana namapenasi ase House, limisa ilungelo lokuphatha. Izinkantolo ekugcineni zanquma ukuthi owayeyilungu wendlu uDon McGahn kumelwe afakazele, aqinisekise igunya lobuphathi beSishaya-Hulumeni.

I - Constitution Foundation: Umbangi WezeNkathi No. 51

James Madison, kuFederalist No. 51, wachaza ngokudume kakhulu isidingo sokuhlola nokulinganisela: “Izikhundla kumelwe zenziwe ukuze kulwiwe nokufuna ukuvelela.” Waphikisa ngokuthi igatsha ngalinye kufanele libe nentando yalo futhi lincike kancane ngangokunokwenzeka kwezinye. UMthetho-sisekelo usakaza amandla ukuze igatsha ngalinye linikeze isheke kwezinye ezimbili, livimbele ubushiqela. UMadison waphawula ngokuqondile ukuthi igatsha lemithetho linamandla kakhulu futhi ngenxa yalokho kumelwe lihlolwe njengezindlu ezimbili futhi lihlolwe isikhulu se-veto ne-gamestry.

“ Uma abantu bebeyizingelosi, bekungeke kudingeke uhulumeni. Uma izingelosi bezingabusa abantu, bekungeke kudingeke ukulawulwa kukahulumeni kwangaphandle noma kwangaphakathi.” — UJames Madison, Federal List No. 51

Lokhu kuqonda kusebalulekile ekuqondeni ukuthi kungani abasunguli bekha isimiso seziphathimandla ezihlalisanayo. Amagatsha omthetho, abaphathi, namagatsha okwahlulela ngalinye linemibuso ehlukene kodwa ehlangene. Ngokwesibonelo, uMongameli umisa abahluleli, kodwa iSishaya-mthetho siyabaqinisa; uMkhandlu wenza imithetho, kodwa uMongameli angawuchaza; i-jaji lichaza imithetho, kodwa i-jaji lingaveza izinguquko. Lemiyalo ikhipha amandla futhi idinga ukubambisana phakathi kwamagatsha, kuyilapho ilondoloza inkululeko yenhlangano.

Izinselele Nezimo Zanamuhla

Isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela asikho ngaphandle kokugxeka. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi kungaholela ekuvuleni, ikakhulukazi ezikhathini zikahulumeni ohlukene, lapho elinye iqembu lilawula khona umongameli futhi elinye lilawula indlu eyodwa noma zombili ze-Congress. Lokhu kungaphumela ekubekeni phambili ukumiswa, ukuvalwa kukahulumeni, nokuhluleka ukuxazulula izimpikiswano eziphuthumayo zesizwe. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi ukwanda kwamandla empango ngemithetho ye-athonsi, nokuthatha isinyathelo esingekho somthetho ohlukene, kululaza ukulinganisela okuhloselwe. Ukuphakama kwezinhlangano zezokuphathwa kwezakhiwo kuvame ukubizwa ngokuthi “igatsha lesine” /-aposethisle, njengoba lezi zisebenza i-quisileagislative, i-quase, i-quaxiase, ne-quaciacial-diader ngaphandle kokuphendula komthetho oqondiswe ngokuqondile.

Nokho lesi simiso siye savunywa. Izinkantolo ziyaqhubeka zisemingceleni yamaphoyisa, uKhongolose uyaqhubeka ephethe isikhwama semali nokwengamela, futhi uMongameli angathatha isinyathelo esiwujuqu lapho kuphuthuma, uma kucatshangelwa kamuva. Ukusetshenziswa kwemibuso kuqinisekisa ukuthi alikho igatsha elingabusa phakade, futhi isidingo sokuhlehla silokhu siyisici esiyinhloko sokubusa kwaseMelika.

Isiphetho

Isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela kubalulekile ekulondolozeni uhulumeni wentando yeningi ohlonipha umthetho futhi ovikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye. Ngokuqinisekisa ukuthi ukulinganisela kwemithetho, ukuphatha, namagatsha okwahlulela kungalinganisela imibuso, uMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. ukhuthaza ukulandisa, ukucubungula, nenkululeko. Kusukela ekuhlolweni nasekuhlolweni kokwahlulela nokulawulwa kwezimali, igatsha ngalinye lisebenzisa amathuluzi ahlukile alondoloza ukulingana. Ukuqonda lokhu kulinganisela kubalulekile ezakhamuzini zonke, njengoba kuqokomisa ukubaluleka kwesivumelwano somphakathi nesivikelo esihlakaniphile sezimiso zomthetho-mthetho. Ikhono labasunguli alikho ekudaleni uhulumeni ophelele kodwa ekuklameni isimiso esizivumela njalo namandla nokuvimbela ngokuncintisana okuhleliwe phakathi kwamagatsha.