Imfundiso eyisisekelo engokomthetho yokuvikela uhulumeni enqatshelwa ukuba bamangalelwe ngaphandle kwemvume yabo. Isekelwe esimisweni sasendulo sokuthi “inkosi ayinakwenza okungalungile,” lemfundiso iye yashintsha yaba indikimba eyinkimbinkimbi yomthetho-sisekelo nemithetho ethinta kakhulu ukuqashelwa komphakathi ezimweni zokuphepha zomphakathi. Uma abantu belinyazwa yizinhlangano zikahulumeni, izikhulu zomthetho, noma izikhulu eziqondisayo, ngokuvamile isesivimbeleni esiqinile sokuvikela ukululama. Ukuqonda isilinganiso sayo, ukungalingani, izimpawu ezisebenzayo kubalulekile kubameli, abameleli bemithetho, nanoma ubani ofuna ukulandisa ezigcabeni zikahulumeni. Lesi sihloko sihlola izisekelo ezingokomlando zokuvikela uhulumeni, ukusebenza kwazo ezinkantolo zanamuhla, nokulinganiselwa kwazo okukhethekile kulawula umphakathi.

Isisekelo Esingokomlando Nomthetho - sisekelo

Imfundiso yokuvikela kokuzivikela kobukhosi ilandela umsuka wayo womthetho wesiNgisi ovamile, lapho uMbuso wawungeke umangalelwe khona ngaphandle kwemvume yawo ecacile. Ngemva kweNguquko yaseMelika, imibuso esanda kwakhiwa yazuza ifa njengemfanelo eyinhloko yokuvikela ubukhosi. UMthetho-sisekelo wase-United States awuzange uqale ukuxoxa ngalendaba, kodwa ukuhlaziywa kweSichibiyelo seshumi nanye seZwe sango-1795 ngokunikeza isimiso somthetho. ISimemezelo seSimemezelo se-United States asizuzwa ukuthi singenwe nanoma yisiphi isiso somthetho noma isiphi isigqeshane, noma uqala noma ukumangalelwa ngomunye we-United States yi-Parents of State, noma i-Parents noma i-Prosesssss of noma i-Heversaventry.”

Nakuba umbhalo ocacile weSichibiyelo seshumi nanye ubonakala unqabela kuphela amasuntswana alethwa yizakhamuzi zasezweni elihlukile [FTLT:1], iNkantolo Ephakeme yanwetshwa ngokushesha. [Ku] uHans v. Louisiana [1890]), iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi iSimemezelo seSimemezelo simiswe futhi i-ethenti yesizwe ngezakhamuzi zaso siqu lapho isuti lisekelwe emthethweni kahulumeni. Le ncazelo yaqinisekisa ukuthi ukuzivikela akuwona nje umngcele enkantolo ehlangene, kodwa isimiso somthetho sibanzi kunesigqi sokulawula. Isinqumo, kuhlanganise [FLT:] v.[FLT]

Ukuze ubheke ngokujule kakhulu umbhalo weSichibiyelo seshumi nanye kanye nencazelo yokuqala, bheka [[FLT: 0] i-Cornell Legin Information Institute . Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ku Alden v. Maine ingomunye umthombo obucayi; umbono ogcwele utholakala nge [[[FLT:]] Justia [[FLT:]].

Indlela Imishini Yomculo EnguMbusi Kahulumeni Esetshenziswa Ngayo Namuhla

Isimiso sokuzimela sobusomsombululo sanamuhla sidlulela ngalé kombhalo ongokoqobo weSichibiyelo seshumi nanye. Asivikeli isifundazwe ngokwaso kuphela, kodwa futhi nezinhlangano zikahulumeni ezibhekwa “izikhali zikahulumeni.” Izibonelo zihlanganisa amaphoyisa kahulumeni, iminyango, iminyango yezempilo, nezinhlangano zezempilo zomphakathi. Izikhulu zimangalelwe emandleni azo ngenxa yengozi ziyavikelwa, ngoba ukumangalela kuvikelwe, ngoba ukumangalela kumelene nenkongongongo yezwe.

Nokho, kunomehluko obalulekile phakathi kwesuti engokomthetho nesokuzenzela ikhanda. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ex epartee Young (08) (08) sithola ukuthi isudi yokufuna [] ukuhlola ukuqashelwa [ukungaqondi kwecala] nesikhulu sikahulumeni sokuphula umthetho ngokuqhubekayo ayivinjelwa yisivikelo somthetho esisemthethweni. Lembobo encane ivumela ukuba iphikise imithetho engekho ngokwezimiso zomthetho noma imikhuba ngaphandle kokulahla ngokuqondile. Isibonelo, isiboshwa singaletha ukujeziswa ngokumelene nokusetshenziswa kwemvume yokungagqekezelwa kwemali.

Ngalé kwe-Exte Young, izifundazwe ziye zavuma ukuvumelana nezimo ezilinganiselwe ngomthetho. Izifunda eziningi ziye zamisa izishozo zezenzo zokuvikela ubukhosi ngokwengxenye kwezinye izinto ezisekelwe ekunganaki, ngokuvamile ezibangela ukulimala kwemephu, ukuphelelwa isikhathi okufushane kwezaziso, nokusebenza okungahleleki. Lemithetho iyahluka kakhulu ngokwesimo, yenza umsebenzi ombaxa wamathuba nezithiyo.

Isihluthulelo Imingcele ye-Delctrinal: Izikhulu v. Ukuhlakanipha ngakunye

Umehluko phakathi kokumangalela isikhulu esisesikhundleni saso esingokomthetho (ngokusebenza ngokusemthethweni) ngokumelene nekhono laso (ukukhipha umuntu) kuyagxeka ezindabeni zokuphepha komphakathi. Uma ummangalelwa engazibonisa ukuthi isikhulu sithatha isinyathelo ngaphandle komsebenzi noma sihileleke ekuziphatheni kabi ngamabomu, isikhulu singaba necala ngokomuntu siqu. Nokho, isifundazwe siningi siphethe izenzo ezinikeza ukuhloniphiswa noma ukuvikelwa kwezenzo zokuhlakanipha okwenziwa ngokholo, okwenza ukuvikela komuntu siqu kungabi lula futhi kube nzima. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuzivikela okuhloniphekile [[FLT:]] imfundiso ivikela izikhulu zikahulumeni ekulimaleni ngaphandle kokuba zephule umthetho ngokusobala, okuvame ukunqotshwa ngisho nalapho ukuzivikela kuyinto enzima.

Ukulinganiselwa Nokuhlukaniswa NoMbusi

Nakuba ukugonyelwa kwesimiso sokuzivikela sobuso bunamandla, akunawo amandla aphelele. Izindlela ezintathu ezinkulu zivumela izigaxa ukuba zinqobe isihlangu: imvume yalesimo , ukushendeza [[FLT]] ukugcotshwa [, kanye nensumansumane [[FLT] Ex echazwe ngenhla.

Umbuso Uvumelana Nezinkulumo Ezithi IzEnzo

Izifundazwe eziningi zinemithetho evimbela ukuvinjelwa kwezitho zomzimba ezifeziwe abasebenzi abasebenza phakathi kwemisebenzi yabo. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Forrt Peacess Act (Imithetho ye-Government 76 810 et seq.) ivumela ukunganaki okumelene nombuso ukuba kubekwe isilinganiso sezehlakalo ezingu-500,000 ngesenzakalo ngasinye. Amanye amazwe afaka izigqoko eziphansi njenge $10,000 noma agcine ngokuphelele ukuvikela kwemigomo yama-orts. Amanye awenqabela ukuthi “imisebenzi ye-Governmentalment comment .” noma“ izinqumo zemithetho engekho emthethweni” – ukuhlukana okuvamile okuvame okuthiwa ngokumelene nokuphepha komphakathi. Ngokwezinga lika-R [FLT:] Ungqungqungquthelano lwezwe lwaseSizweni se-Gractreast [FFUT] [FLAS] [F1] [FLAS], ezinye iziciondo ezihlukene, kodwa zishoka kakhulu kunezindlela ezihlukene ze-40]

Ukuxoshwa Kwenhlangano

Ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane, uKhongolo lungathola umthetho ogunyaza amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo ombuso owenziwe nge-broted jogate. Ngokwesibonelo, umndeni nomthetho we-Medical Let Act kanye [[FLT:] namaMelika anomthetho okhubazekayo] [ [umthetho] ufunyaniswe kumthetho owenqaba (umongokwakhona). Nokho, iNkantolo yeNkantolo ephakeme ibeke imingcele eqinile kuleligunya, ifuna ukuba umthetho ube “onqanyukile futhi ube nelinganiswe ngokulinganayo eqekwayo. Ekwenqanyulweni komthetho. Empeleni yomphakathi, izinkantolo ezivinjelweyo ngaphandle kwemvume eqinile ye-osimo ye-Foctive [Foct:Focts Act [F] Intel], kodwa izikhulu zeNkakhulu leNkakhulu lenkantolo zakwamukelekile, ngaphandle kwezename:[Fodvertivelti

Ukuzibulala Ngamunye Ngaphansi Kwengxenye Ngo - 1983

Umsebenzi ovamile uwukuletha amalungelo esizwe agunyaziwe ngaphansi kuka-42 U.S.C. ngo-1934 ngokumelene nezikhulu ezithile. Ingxenye 1983 ivumela izikhulu zikahulumeni ukuba zidlulise icala ngenxa yokwephulwa komthetho-mthetho kahulumeni noma amalungelo ombuso. Ngenxa yokuthi ukumangalelwa kumelene nesikhulu ngokomuntu siqu, ukuvikela kombuso akusebenzi. Nokho, isikhulu singaqinisa ukuzivikela okungakholekiyo [, okuyisivikelo samalungelo, hhayi isithiyo. Lo mahluko ubalulekile: ukuvikeleka okufanelekayo kungavinjelwa uma uhulumeni ukhetha ukuvikela isikhulu, kodwa ungasivikeli isambatho. Ngaphezu kwalokho, uma isifunda noma isifunda singaphansi kwe-1998 [FFON] [2] [3]

Icala Lokuphepha Komphakathi: Izinselele Eziqondile

Izindaba zokuphepha zomphakathi zihlanganisa ukuqinisekisa ukuziphatha okubi, ukunganaki kokujeziswa, noma ukuhluleka kwenkonzo yesimo esiphuthumayo, zibhekene nenhlanganisela eyingqayizivele yezithiyo zokuvikela ukubusa. Izingxenye ezilandelayo zihlola izimo ezivame kakhulu.

Umthetho Ophoqelela Ukuziphatha Okungafanele

Ama-athodi omthetho, njengamandla adlulele, ukuboshwa okungamanga, noma ukufa okungalungile, kuphakathi kwezithena zokuphepha zomphakathi ezicatshangelwe kakhulu. Ukuvikeleka kombuso ngokuvamile kuvikela inxusa lamaphoyisa esubeni eliqondile. Ngakho - ke amachalaza kumelwe adlulise izikhulu ngazinye ngaphansi komthetho ka-1963 noma umbuso, kodwa kumelwe asebenzise kokubili ukuvikelwa okufanelekayo kokuzivikela komthetho womthetho ngenxa yezenzo zokuhlakanipha. Amazwe amaningi anikeza futhi ukuvikeleka kwezisebenzi zokuthula lapho enza imisebenzi yazo, ngaphandle kokuba abonise “ukunganaki nokungalawuleki” noma“ ukuthanda ukuziphatha okubi. ”

Ngokwesibonelo, Smith v. [19983], iNkantolo Ephakeme yavumela ukujeziswa ngokumelene nezikhulu zokungakhathaleli kweziboshwa ngamabomu ngenxa yokunganaki kweziboshwa, kodwa ngenxa nje yokuthi izikhulu zamangalelwa emandleni azo. Umbuso ngokwawo wawunokuzivikela. Ngokufanayo, entweni ephezulu [Umthetho] uMllennix v. Icala (2015], iNkakhulu yanika isikhulu sesikhulu esifanelekayo esifuna ukuvikeleka isikhulu esibalekayo esisolayo, sithola kungekho mthetho owenqabela ngokucacile ukuthi ukwenqaba izenzo zakhe. Lokhu kubonisa ukuthi ngisho nalapho ukuzivikela kukhishwa, kungavimbela ukulondeka.

Ukulungiswa Nokumangalelwa Kwamajele

Ababoshi babhekene nemigoqo evimbela kakhulu ekumangalelweni komphakathi. Prigon Litigation Reform Act [[FLRA] imisa izimfuneko zokukhathala, imingcele yokukhokha, nento evimbela isuti yokulimala ngokwengqondo noma ngokomzwelo ngaphandle kokuboniswa kokulimala ngokomzimba. Isimiso sokuzivikela esinguhulumeni siyazinzisa izindaba: amajele angogonyelwa ngokwemvelo esheleni lemali ngaphandle kokuba imboni isetshenziswe. Amajele angasenakekeli izikhulu zejele ngaphansi kuka-1998 ngenxa yokungazinaki okukhulu izidingo zokwelapha (Izentengiselwano zezentengiselwano), kodwa kumelwe alahle ikhandleko yezindlela zokuphatha. Ngisho - ke, ukugobeka kwemithetho yokuzigobeka kwemithetho esemthethweni, njengaleyo empova nempahla.

I- Indinganiso ephakeme, emiswe ku- estelle v. Gamble [1997], ifuna ukuba isikhulu sazi futhi singayinaki ingozi enkulu yokulimala. Lento iyisiqobo esiphakeme, kodwa uma ihlangane, inqoba isciphelo esiqinile sokuzivikela ngoba umthetho usungulwe kahle. Nokho, umbuso ngokwawo uhlala uso sokuzivikela ngaphandle kokuba imvume. Ezinye izifunda, njengaseNew York, zinokuthambekela kokungalungisi komthetho othile owenziwa ngeNkathi Yemithetho, kodwa isaziso nezimfuneko ziwuhluphakele.

Izinkonzo Eziphuthumayo Nezitokisi

Izinkonzo zesimo esiphuthumayo zikaMasipala nombuso (‘iminyango yemoto, ochwepheshe bezokwelapha, nezinhlangano zenhlekelele , zizuza futhi ekuvikeleni ubukhosi. Izifunda-zwe eziningi ziye zamisa imithetho evikela izinhlangano nezisebenzi zokuzithandela ezivikela izingozi eziphuthumayo, ngaphandle kokuba kuboniswe ukunganaki okukhulu. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Emergincy Servicess Services Medical]]] [kumazwe ahlukahlukene afuna ukugoma amaEMTS [ukugoma]] ekubekeni izingozi ezimweni ezivamile zokungakhathalelwa. Ngaphezu kwalokho, umsebenzi oweqiniwe kakhulu [[FLT:]]]]] ukuthatha i-tractivestionstingssssssss mayelana nezenzo ezivame ukuvikela ngezindlela zokuthenga noma ukusabela ezimweni eziphuthuma. Lokhu kwenza kube nzima kakhulu ezisulubeni zokusabela ngokuphumelela.

Enye i-octal ephawulekayo ihlanganisa ukuthi umbuso wephula i- iSichibiyelo se-Active’s Procession Clause ngokuhluleka ukuvikela abantu ebudloveni basese. INkantolo Ephakeme ibambene Denhaney v. Winnebago County [1999] ukuthi ngokuvamile umbuso awunamsebenzi wokuvikela izakhamuzi engozini yangasese, ngaphandle kokuba “ubuhlobo obukhethekile” bukhona (umgomo okhethekile", ovalelweyo noma owenziwe ngokuzenziswa). Lokhu kubusa imingcele engokomthetho yokuphepha isho ukuthi, ukuvikela nokuntula komthetho womthetho kuhlanganisa isamba sombuso.

Ukucatshangelwa Okufanelekile Kwalabo Abayimilingo

Njengoba benobunkimbinkimbi nokungaguquguquki kokuzivikela kobukhosi, abameli abasingatha amacala okuphepha komphakathi kumelwe bathuthukise amasu ngokucophelela ukuze bandise amathuba okululama. Lezizindlela ezilandelayo zisetshenziswa kakhulu:

  • ubeka ummangalelwa ofanele: Gwema ukumangalela izinhlangano zikahulumeni noma zikahulumeni ngokuqondile; kunalokho, sho izikhulu ngazinye noma izikhulu ezisezindaweni zazo siqu. Kuzo zonke izikhulu zikamasipala (izakhiwo, izibalo), phawula ukuthi omasipala abavikelwe yisimiso sokunqanda iSichibiyelo seshumi Nenye) bathathwa “abantu” ngaphansi kwe 2016.
  • Funa usizo olungenalusizo: Sebenzisa 'ex ngxenyee Young ukubekela inselele yezimiso eziqhubekayo ezingavumelani nemithetho. Lokhu kuwusizo kakhulu ezimweni ezilungisayo noma ezindleleni zamandla aphakeme, lapho uhlelo lwenkantolo lunganqanda khona ukwephulwa.
  • isifundazwe sokuhlola i-tort sithi yenza[: Umthetho wombuso ngamunye unezimfuneko ezihlukile ze-procedro, njengezaziso zangaphambi kwezinsuku ezingu-90, i-capers, kanye nokungakhi onyakeni wesikhathi esingakafiki. Ukungakhonzi isikhathi esingafiki kungabulala ukusho.
  • Cwangcisa iziphakamiso zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo zikahulumeni: Ingxenye 1983 ithi ivimbela ukuvikela kombuso kodwa iso lokuzivikela okufanelekayo. Kuqinisekisiwe ukuthi ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lendaba lamiswa ngokucacile ngesikhathi sokwephulwa.
  • Ukugobeka kwe-afliance communication: Cwangcisisa ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni osebenzayo (umz., amaMelika anoMthetho wokukhubazeka, iSihlokwana VII, i-Rehabilitation Act) ugunyaziwe ngokusemthethweni njengesimiso sokuvikela izikhali. INkantolo Ephakeme inikeze isiqondiso ezimweni ezifana ne- Tennesseee v. Lane[[FLT] [2004]) ngesilinganiso sokukhubazeka isiqephu sesigaba 5 seSiphendulo se-Dlungiso se-14.

Intuthuko Yamuva Nemizamo Yezinguquko

Izwe lokuzivikela komthetho alimi ndawonye. Eminyakeni yamuva nje, imibuso eminingi iye yafaka umthetho owenzelwe ukuzivikela okuncane kwezinhlobo ezithile zokuzisholo, ikakhulukazi lezo ezihilela ubudlova bamaphoyisa. Ngokwesibonelo, u-Early Assembly 252 (2020) wasusa ezinye izithiyo ekufuneni amalungelo omphakathi ngokuvimbela ukusetshenziswa kwesimiso sokuzivikela esifanelekayo njengesivikelo enkantolo kahulumeni. Ngokufanayo, iColorado neNew York iye yamisa imithetho eyenza kube lula ukugcina amaphoyisa nomasipala benecala, ngisho nalapho isivikelo sombuso sokuzivikela kombuso sihlala siqinile.

Eqophelweni likahulumeni, UJaji ohlongozwayo uGeorge Floyd kumthetho wePolicing Act ka-2021 wahlanganisa amalungiselelo okuqeda ukuvikeleka okufanelekayo komthetho olandelwayo nokuqeda i-Cuartic 1983 ukuze avumele amasudur ngokuqondile ezindaweni ngokuqondile ngenxa yokuphulwa komthetho-sisekelo. Nakuba lo Mthetho ungadluliswanga, uveza ukuqhubekeka okukhulayo kokuguqula kokubili ukuvikela kobukhosi nezimfundiso ezihlobene nazo. Izinkantolo ziqale ukuphinde zivule izinga lokuzivikela kombuso ezimweni ezihilela ubuchwepheshe banamuhla, njengokuqaphela imibandela yobuso nemininingwane, kodwa ukuphepha komphakathi kuhlala kuyinto ephambili.

Ohlangothini lokwahlulela, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yabonisa ukuthambekela kokulondoloza isivikelo sokuzivikela esiqinile sobubusi. ku-Texas Department of Public Safety [202]), iNkantolo yaphetha ukuthi iTexas yazinqanda ukuvikeleka kwayo ngokujoyina i-Union ngaphansi “kwenkolelo yeSivumelwano”, kodwa lento ehlukile ilinganiselwe futhi ilinganiselwe emacaleni ahilela ukutholakala kwempahla noma impahla kahulumeni. Imithetho eminingi yamuva nje iqinisekisa imingcele yezenkolo.

Kulabo abanesithakazelo ekuguquleni, ikhasi le-Oyez ku-Torres v. Texas linikeza isizinda esiwusizo. Enye i-astere iyi- Brennan Center yeSikhungo sobulungisa umbiko wezokuvikela kobuso becala nesibopho sokulandisa kwamaphoyisa [, exoxa ngezinguquko ezihlongoze ukushaya umthetho.

Isiphetho

Izimiso zokuvikela uhulumeni zihlala zingezinye zezithiyo ezinkulu kakhulu ekumangalelweni komphakathi ezicingweni zokuphepha zomphakathi. Zisekelwe ezimisweni zomthetho ezidala futhi ziqiniswe yiSichibiyelo seshumi nanye neNkantolo Ephakeme, zivikela amagugu ezwe nezinhlangano zemali ngaphandle kokuba kunikezwe imvume noma kusetshenziswe izimpawu ezikhethekile. Nakuba izimfundiso ezinjengoExpace Young ne-buthoriation comporation anikeza ezinye izindlela zosizo, zinciphileka kancane futhi azinele ukusingatha ububi besimiso somthetho. Abakhokhi bamaPlainfont namanxusa abo kumelwe bahambe phambili umsebenzi onzima wesivumelwano sikahulumeni nomthetho ngaphandle kokuba kunikezwe imvume, ukukhetha abamangali, izimbangela zesenzo, nezokulungisa izivumelwano ezisebenzayo. Ukufuna komphakathi ukuthuthukisa ukulungisa nokukhubazeka komthetho kuhlanganisa ukufaneleka kwe-modededededede. Understancernerton i-otectivesss yesigaba esisebenzayo esisebenzayo nokuguqula isigaba esisebenzayo.