Ubuhlobo phakathi kukahulumeni kahulumeni nezifundazwe buye baba yiphuzu eliyinhloko lokungavumelani kusukela ekusungulweni kweRepublic yaseMelika. I-Bill of Rights, eyagunyazwa ngo-1791, ekuqaleni yaqondwa njengesebenza kuhulumeni wombuso kuphela, esebenza njengesihlaseli sokulwa nombuso wobushiqela. Lokhu kwashiya igebe elikhulu ekuvikeleni inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye, njengoba ohulumeni bezwe babengawabekela imingcele yamalungelo ngaphandle kokubhekana nenselele engokomthetho. Lemfundiso ye-Incorporation Religion yavela engxabeni yomthetho-mfashini ngemva kwempi yesizwe ukuxazulula lokhu kulwa kwesizwe. Ngenkampakatho yekhulu lama-20 leminyaka, iNkanto ephakeme yasebenzisa cishe wonke amalungiselelo eMalungelweni ezindawo, ishintsha indawo enkulu ye-Melika ehlangene ne-unizimu nomthetho womthetho. Ukuqonda lemfundiso kubaluleke kakhulu ekuqondeni kwelungelo le-umthetho womthetho - hulumeni namuhla.

Imvelaphi Yemfundiso Yokuvumelana

IAntebellum Ukuqonda: Barron v. Baltimore

Indaba yokuqala yekhulu le-19 leminyaka, ukuthi iBhill of Rights esetshenziswa ezindaweni yaxazululwa ngesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme . Baltimore [1833]. IJaji eliyinhloko uJohn Marshall, ebhalela iNkantolo ehlangene, wasekela ukuthi iBhili yamaLungelo yayihloselwe ukuvinjelwa kukahulumeni. Isinqumo sasenza uhulumeni uhulumeni wamazwe aphakeme wahlukanisa uhulumeni. Icala elihilela umnini wechweba eBaltimoret owafaka umphandle wedolobha ngenxa yokulimaza impahla yakhe ngaphandle kokukhipha imbuyiselo. Nakuba iSiphendulo sesihlanu sasinqabela ukuthatha impahla yomphakathi ngaphandle kokukhokhwaba, iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi le mithetho ayizange ibophanga iboshelwe imibuso noma imibuso yendawo. Isinqumo sakhamuzi sakhamuzi sakhamuzi sathiswa yilungelo kuphela, njengoba isikhulu saso saso sawo sabe somthetho sawo somthetho.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Nokushintsha Kwesimo Somphakathi

Ukubekwa kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane ngo-1868 kwakuyimpendulo eqondile ekungabini nabulungisa kweMpi yangemva kwe-Civil eNingizimu kanye nemfundiso . Inguquko yafuna ukuvikela izigqila ezisanda kukhululwa emthethweni wezwe ononya. Isigaba esisodwa siqukethe izigqebhezana eziningana eziyinhloko, kodwa ezimbili zisemzimbeni wemfundiso ye-Incoroporation:

  • [ Amalungelo noma ama-inmmunict Claus: "Awukho uHulumeni ozokwenza noma ukumisa noma yimuphi umthetho ozomisa ibhuloho elizakuhlanganisa amalungelo noma ukugoma kwezakhamuzi zase-United States."
  • Inqubo elindelekile u-Claus:[ "... futhi nanoma yimuphi uMbuso ngeke unciphise noma yimuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho."

Ekuqaleni, kwakukholelwa ukuthi ama-Orfution noma ama-inmunion Claus ayoba yimoto eyinhloko yokusebenzisa i-Bill of Rights kumazwe. Nokho, Indlu-Case Cases [ [1873]), iNkantolo Ephakeme yalinganisela kakhulu izinga lalesivumelwano, iphethe ukuthi i - Inquertion kuphela evimbela isilinganiso samalungelo athathwe esabelweni sesizwe, njengalungelo lokunxusa iSishaya-Roundation noma ukufinyelela izikhungo ze-teshi ezisemkhabeni. Lokhu kwafunda ngokuphumelelayo i-gatsheni le-Incopeation Doctivementmentation Revolution iminyaka engaphezu kwekhulu. Njengomphumela, iNkantolo yaphendukela kumthetho njengendawo yokuvikela amalungelo ayisisekelo esizwe esivikelweni sokulwa kwesizwe.

Ukuziphendukela Kwemvelo Okuyisisekelo: Kusukela Emalungelweni Ayisisekelo Kuya Ekukhetheni Imibandela

Amalungelo Ayisisekelo Ayasondela

Ngasekupheleni kwekhulu le-19 nekhulu lama-20, iNkantolo yaqala ukusungula ukuhlolwa okungokomthetho kokusebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo kumazwe. Thuning v. eNew Jersey [1908]), iNkantolo yamisa "amalungelo angokwengqondo". Umbuzo wawungakho ukuthi ilungiselelo eliqondile leBhili lamaLungelo laliphule yini, kodwa ukuthi uhulumeni uphule ngakwesokudla esiyisisekelo kangangokuthi kwakungu-"imlit embonweni wenkululeko emisiwe"" lokhu kwanikeza inseleleko enkulu yeNkantolo yokukhetha amalungelo afanele ukuvikelwa uhulumeni.

Palko v.Connecticut kanye "Inkululeko Ehlotshisiwe"

IJaji Benjamin Cardozo lamisa lendlela esemthethweni yokukhetha icala eliphawulekayo Palko v.Connecticut (1937]. UFrank Palka wazanywa ngokubulala, walahlwa icala lokubulala, wanikwa isigwebo sokuphila. Inkantolo ephakeme yaveza ukuthi i-Chernecticut ayizange ibe isigwebo futhi yawina icala elisha, lapho uPalka wabekwa icala lokubulala futhi wagwetshwa ukufa. UPalka waphikisa ngokuthi icala lesibili laphula isivikelo seSiphendulo sesihlanu ngokuphindiwe kabili. Inkantolo Ephakeme yaveza ukuthi isigwebo esiphindiwe kabili asiyiyo "impoqolo yobulungisa esekelwe emasikweni nasemthethweni abantu bethu njengomthetho ovamile." Inkantolo efuna ukuvulwe yilungelo lokuhlola imvume yokuvula imvume. Kodwa abanye abafuna ukuvuma.

Impicabadala yobulungisa Black's iyonke

UMahluleli uHugo Black wayengumgxeki ovelele kakhulu wendlela yokukhetha. Phakathi nayo yonke iNkantolo, waphikisa ngokuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sasihloselwe ukusebenzisa wonke umqulu Wamalungelo esizwe. "Unyaka wonke" inkolelo - mbono yakhe yayithi i-Gust Procession Clause yeSichibiyelo se 1450 esifake isivikelo ngasinye seziphene zokuqala zokuqala eziyisishiyagalombili. Abamnyama babekholelwa ukuthi "amalungelo angokwengqondo" anikwa isahlulelo esikhulu kakhulu futhi ubufakazi obungokomlando busekela ingqikithi yesivumelwano. Nakuba u-Black Black engakaze awinelele ingxenye enkulu yenkolelo yakhe egcwele, ukungavumelani kwakhe okunamandla ezimweni ezifana [[FLD:0] u-Adamson. [1947]

INkantolo YaseWarren NeNkantolo Yesigebengu Yokuvukela Kwezigebengu

Ukhetho lweJaji eliyinhloko u-Earl Warren ngo-1953 lwaphawula ukushintshwa kokuzamazama komhlaba eMbusweni we-Incorporation. INkantolo yaseWarren yamukela umbono obanzi wenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye futhi ngokuyisisekelo yaguqula ubuhlobo phakathi kwezimiso zomthetho kahulumeni womthetho womthetho womthetho noMthetho-sisekelo. Kuchungechunge lwezinqumo phakathi kwawo-1960, iNkantolo yahlanganisa cishe zonke izikhungo zobugebengu zenqubo yeSigebengu seNkathi. Lenkathi ibizwa ngokuthi i-"inqubo yokuguqula inguquko." Yandisa ngokuphawulekayo ukuqondisa kwezwelo ngokomthetho kwamaphoyisa, izinkantolo, namajele, iqinisekisa ukuthi izivumelwano eziyisisekelo zomthetho zisebenza kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ubani ohlala kuyiphi inqubo.

Izincwadi Zamalungelo Ziya E - United States: Ukuhlaziya Okulungile Ngakwesokudla

Inqubo yokuhlanganisa kwakungesona isenzakalo esisodwa kodwa yayiyintuthuko eyenzeka kancane kancane, yecala ngalinye. Ngezansi kuwohloka kwendlela iNkantolo Ephakeme eye yasebenzisa ngayo ilungiselelo elikhulu ngalinye leBhili lamaLungelo ezifundazweni.

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala: Ukukhuluma, Ukunyathelisa, Umhlangano Nenkolo

ISichibiyelo sokuqala sasiwumngcele wokuqala omkhulu wokuhlanganisa. Gitlow v. New York (1925), iNkantolo yathi inkululeko yokukhuluma iyilungelo eliyisisekelo elivikelwe esifundazweni i-adbridgiment. [[FL:2] ne-metal v.Minnesota[[[FLT]] [[FLT]] [193] [1931]] [i-1931] [isivikelo senkululeko yokunyathelisa, ishaya umthetho owawuvumela ukuvinjelwa kwangaphambi kwephephandaba. [[FLT] [FLT] [4] [i-Jonge] [vFLT] [FLT] [ev:5] [37] i-fullssion.[4] i-evossion yagunyaza izite izitejinga ze-full.[edul]

ISichibiyelo Sesibili: Ilungelo Lokugcina Nokuthwala Izikhali

ISichibiyelo Sesibili sasingelinye lamalungiselelo okugcina eSibonelo samaLungelo ukuba ahlanganiswe ngokugcwele. Engxenyeni enkulu yekhulu lama-20, iNkantolo Ephakeme yenqaba ukusebenzisa iSichibiyelo Sesibili ezizweni. iUnited States v. i-Cruikshank[[[FLT]] [186] [186] na [[FLT] [[FLT] [[12]] [[3]] [iiiiinguquko] kanye ne-' [[FLT]] [iiiinqumo] i-v.[5] i-vFLT] ihluleka [iiiiiiiiput] i-vulphere [iinjini] (i-FLT] [ikhulu]) [inxa] (ikhulu lama-2006] i-inxa6] i-ibhundulogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogogo

ISichibiyelo Sesine: Ukufuna Nokukhipha Uhulumeni

ISichibiyelo sesine sivikela ekuphenyeni okungacabangeli nokuquleka futhi sidinga imvume yokusekelwa ngokunokwenzeka. Indlela yokufaka lesisilungisi yayimde futhi iyinkimbinkimbi. Wolf v. Colorado[ [1949], iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi ilungelo lokukhululeka ekuphenyeni ngokungenangqondo libalulekile, kodwa yenqaba ukusebenzisa umthetho osusiwe (*) futhi ikhambi elivimbela ngokungemthetho ukuba usetshenziswe enkantolo /ukuya kumazwe. Lokhu kwakhamba umsebenzi lapho ilunga lokulunga lalikhona kodwa lalingenakukhonzwa esilinganisweni. Inkantolo yazivumela ukuba inqubo yokuhlola yecala inciphekelelwe. [FL:] i-v.[FFFONT] i-futton. [1961] Ize i-G.[1961] Imithetho egunyazweyokuvinwe yi-mthetho womthetho weNkadensi) [iv.[ense, i-Empempempe yale: [i, ingu engu-fusethi, ku

Isichibiyelo Sesihlanu: Ukuzihlupha, Ukuzifaka Engcupheni Kabili, Nokuthatha

Amalungiselelo ayinhloko eSichibiyelo sesihlanu aye afakwa ngezikhathi ezihlukene. Ukuthatha i-Cantal ("Nomnum]] [impahla yomuntu siqu] kuzakuthathwa ukuze kusetshenziswe impahla yomphakathi, ngaphandle nje kwembuyiselo") kwafakwa phambili njenge [ shicago, Burlington & . [[196] ISiphakamo] [[FLT] [18]] [18] [196], [izimpawu zecala] ezibonisa ukukhathalela kweNkakhulu ngempahla. [FLT] Isivikelo esingaphezulu safakwa engozini [[FLT] [FLT]] [5] [5]] i-flect.[5] I-Benland.[5] I-ftimession.[4] I-EX. i-EXSTIOrlea ifuna ukuba i-osethi ye-oglestivencessssssion inciced, manje inciced.[irle

Isichibiyelo Sesithupha: Amalungelo Okuqulwa Kwecala Asemthethweni

ISiphendulo sesithupha siqinisekisa inqwaba yamalungelo aklanyelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuqulwa kwecala elilungile. Lezi zihlanganisa ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala elisheshayo nelinomphakathi, ijaji elingenalundlu, ilungelo lokubhekana nofakazi, inqubo ephoqelelweyo yokuthola ofakazi, nelungelo lokunikezwa iseluleko esingokomthetho. Lamalungelo afakwa ngokuyinhloko phakathi nenkathi yeNkantolo. [[FLT:] [FLT]] [FOLT] [[F2] in transform [FF:]] [FLT] [3] [1966]] ingunyuswa kakhulu, inqubo engokomthetho, ehlanganisa ilungelo elikhulu kakhulu lokuthola lamalungelo, eliyilungelo eliyilungelo elibalulekile lokuphatha izigaba, elimelene nelungelo lokuzishaya, [F4] ofakazi abamelene nokukhohliswa komthetho.[Fogn] [F] [12] [4] [ex4] ku-offans]

ISichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili: Unya Nesijeziso Esingavamile

ISichibiyelo Sesichibiyelo Sesibhozo sonya nesobuqaba safakwa Robinson v. California (1962). INkantolo yawisa umthetho waseCalifornia owawenza waba yicala ukuba ube umlutha wezidakamizwa, uphethe ukuthi umbuso awunakumjezisa umuntu ngesikhundla esithile noma isimo esithile, ngokuphambene nesenzo esithile. Lokhu kwakungokokuqala ukuba iNkantolo isebenzise iSiphendulo Sesishiyagalombili ezifundazweni, ivule umnyango wezingxoxo zanamuhla zokubulala isigwebo nejele, kuhlanganise nokwenqatshelwa kwemali echithile nesihle.

Ithonya Lokungahambisani Nemithetho YoMbuso Yokwahlulela Kwezigebengu

Imfundiso ye-Incorporation Doctrine yaba nethonya elikhulu kakhulu ezimisweni zomthetho zikahulumeni. Ngaphambi kwawo-1960, izigungu zazinenkululeko enkulu yokulawula izinkantolo, iminyango yamaphoyisa, namajele njengoba zazibona kufanele. Ukufakwa kwezesine, ezesihlanu, ezesi-6th, neziNguqulo ze-8hhs ezibekwe imigaqo eqinile yemithetho engokomthetho engokomthetho kulezi zimiso. Izinhlangano zamaphoyisa hulumeni kwadingeka ukuba zithathe izinqubo zokuthola izivumelwano, ukunikeza [[FLT]] [[FLTY:1] izixwayiso, futhi ngokuqondene neketanga lokugcinwa kwejele ukuze kunikeze ubufakazi bazo bonke abampofu. Izinkantolo zezwe kwadingeka ukuba zinikeze abahluleli becala ngenxa yezenzo ezingathi sína, futhi zikhiphe ubufakazi obungaqondile. Lokhu kunikezwa ngokungemthetho ezweni lonke, ukuncishintshwa kwemithetho yemithetho yecala yezena eMelikani esemthethweni, ngenxa yecala, noma indawo yecala.

Izimpikiswano Nezinsolo Zesikhathi Esizayo

Ukungazalwa Namalungelo Noma Ukungavikeleki

Naphezu kokwamukelwa kwayo okusakazeke kakhulu, i-Incorporation Doctrine isalokhu iyindaba yenkulumo - mpikiswano enzima yezazi nokwahlulela. Abahluleli abaningi bamajaji nezazi zomthetho baphikisa ngokuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme yenza iphutha i-Slaaster Casess-Nd [ ngokususa amaMalungelo noma ama-Immunion Classiade. UJaji uClarence Thomas ubengummeli omkhulu kakhulu weNkantolo yeNkantolo ePhakathini ePhakamele ukusebenzisa iMalungelo noma i-Imtunice Clause, kunokuba i-"ifassme] i-Moniciomes i-Immastery Claus, njengoba imoto efanele yokuhlanganisa [Foct:2] e-Donalves. [irrectivesssssssssss] inikeza inzuzo yokuqala ye-evolueveravey.[Foctedm][F

Imfundiso Emelene Nemithetho

Ukugxekwa okuqhubekayo kokufakwa kwesimiso kuwukuthi kululaza isimiso sombuso. Abasekeli bombuso baphikisa ngokuthi uhulumeni wezwe, ngezinkantolo, ugunyaza ngokuphumelelayo izishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni neziphathi zikahulumeni ukuba zisebenzise izimiso ezithile. Umthetho "anti-commanding", ocaciswe emacaleni anjengo Prequez v. United States[FL] [1997] [[FLT] [1997] [ne-] ne-New York. United States York v.[FLT]] [FLT] [3], ulinganisela amandla kahulumeni kahulumeni ukuba ubeke imingcele eqondileyo ukuphoqelela ukumisa noma ukuphatha izinhlelo zomthetho. Nokho, izinkantolo zikholelwa ukuthi ukugcinwa kwamalungelo omthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho womthetho-mthetho-siseko kuhlukile. Nakuba ukumiswa kwemvume enkantolo yomthetho womthetho-mthetho-mthetho wanamuhla zingakwenqabela ukumiswa, njengoba kuveza ngokuvumelana, ngokumelene nomthetho omthetho omkhulu.

Ukuguqulwa kombhalo

Ukubuyisela ukuhlanganiswa kuyimfundiso ehlobene lapho iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sisetshenziswa khona ukusebenzisa amalungelo avela kuBill of Rights kuhulumeni kahulumeni. Isibonelo esidumile kakhulu yisi Bolling v. Trorde [1954], umngane wecala [[FLT:] Brown v. [FLT] [FLT:] [FLT] [FLT] ufaka i-FLT] ngaphansi kweSiphetho se-Grandsting , [inani elingu-54] u-FLT] wahlasela isivikelo se-Gradimetersting ngaphansi kweSiphekethi se-Grangebheti ye-Genetic Clausle, [[FLD]] [FL:] [FLT]] [5] [ikhulu] likhuluma nge-gobown [indel] [egn ye-foundation, i-Grouevelight, i-omsment, elingana naleT] yeNkaT.

Ikusasa Lokungahloniphi

ISiphakamiso seSiphendulo asiyona indaba exazululiwe engokomlando kodwa indawo esebenzayo yomthetho-mthetho. Kusekhona amalungiselelo eSiphakamiso samaLungelo esingafakwanga ngokugcwele. Ngokwesibonelo, isivikelo seSiphendulo sesithathu sokuvikela amasosha athatha ingxenye yesine asizange sihlanganiswe ngokuqondile neNkantolo Ephakeme, nakuba ikhona kabanzi ukuba isetshenziswe. Imfuneko yeSigqizo sesihlanu somthetho omkhulu ebekwa icala enkantolo ngenxa yobugebengu obungathi sína asizange sibekwe ukuba sisebenze kumazwe iHratado v. [[FLT.FLT:] [181]]] [184], futhi lesi sibonelo sihlala siwumthetho omuhle. ISimende sihlala indawo eqinile, nezinkantolo eziphazamisa ububanzi becala [FLT] [FFF] emithelela nemithetho yayo yemithetho engokomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho ovamile kuphela.

Isiphetho

I-Incorporation Doctrine ifana nenye yentuthuko ebaluleke kakhulu emlandweni waseMelika. Ngokusebenzisa iBhill of Rights kumazwe ngeSichibiyelo seshumi nane, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaguqula isimo sobuzwe baseMelika nesivikelo senkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Kusukela ezinqumweni eziyisisekelo zeSinkantolo seWarren Court ukuya ezimpikiswaneni zanamuhla zeSiphendulo Sesibili nenqubo yobugebengu, ukufakwa kwamalungelo ayisisekelo kuye kwaguqula ukulingana kwamandla phakathi kwezifundazwe nohulumeni. Nakuba izimpikiswano ngokubaluleka kombuso wokuqala, uhulumeni, nokwahlulela kuyaqhubeka, isimiso esiyinhloko semfundiso sihlala sicacile: inkululeko eyisisekelo eqinisekiswe yizo zonke izakhamuzi, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi yisiphi isimo ezisibiza ekhaya.

Ukuze kufundwe ngokwengeziwe ngokuziphendukela kwemvelo kwalemfundiso, I-Legal Information eCornell Law School inikeza ukucaciswa okuhle kakhulu. Izinqumo eziyinhloko ezinjenge [[[FLT:]] Gitlow v. New York ku-Oyz kanye nokuhlanganiswa kweSichibiyelo sesibili [[FLT:] McDonald v. Chicago[[FLT: 7]] inikeza ukufinyelela ngqo emithonjeni eyinhloko eqhubeka ibumba lendawo ebalulekile yomthetho.