Ukuqonda imingcele yamandla kahulumeni kubalulekile kunoma yimuphi umphakathi wentando yeningi. Amalungelo e-Civic asebenza njengesisekelo senkululeko yomuntu ngamunye, kuqinisekiswe ukuthi izakhamuzi zingahlanganyela ngokugcwele ekubuseni kwazo. Lamalungelo awazona izipho ezivela kuhulumeni kodwa amalungelo angokwemvelo okumelwe avikelwe ekuphathweni. Umphakathi osukhona, ukwazi kokubili izinga nemingcele yegunya likahulumeni, kuyisivikelo esiqinile ekubuseni uhulumeni. Lesiqondiso sihlola izisekelo, izigaba, izinqubo, nezinselele zamanje zamalungelo ezakhamuzi, ukunikeza umbono obanzi wendlela izakhamuzi ezingavikela ngayo inkululeko yazo.

Isisekelo Sikahulumeni Olinganiselwe

Umqondo wokuthi amandla kahulumeni kumelwe aqiniswe awumusha. Izazi zefilosofi ezinjengoJohn Locke zaphikisa ngokuthi igunya elingokomthetho litholakala emvumeni yababuswayo nokuthi abantu banamalungelo angokwemvelo ekuphileni, enkululeko, nasempahla. Inkolelo-mbono kaLocke yenhlalo, ehlelwe kuRock:0 [[FLT]] yakhe i-Spected of Government [, izikhulu zokuthi abantu badala ohulumeni ukuze bavikele lawomalungelo, futhi lapho uhulumeni ebaphula, izakhamuzi zinelungelo lokumelana nawo.

Montesquieu wanwebeka kulokhu ngokukhuthaza ukwahlukana kwemibuso [1] [i-FLT:] ukuvimbela noma iliphi igatsha ukuba lingabuswa. Umsebenzi wakhe wathonya kakhulu abalawuli boMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. James Madison, ku- Fiteralist No. 51, wabhala, ukuthi, “ukube abantu babeyizingelosi, akukho hulumeni odingekayo. Uma izingelosi bezingabusa abantu, futhi zingaba izilawuli zangaphandle noma zangaphakathi zikahulumeni.” Lokhu kucabanga kuholele esimisweni sokuhlola nezilinganiso ezihlala zikhona itshe likahulumeni elilinganiselwe.

Le mithetho yefilosofi ayiyona nje imibono engokwemfundo, isho okuthile okuwusizo.

Ukuthuthuka Okungokomlando Kwamalungelo Ezakhamuzi

Ukuziphendukela kwamalungelo omphakathi kuye kwalolongwa izincwadi nezinhlangano ezivelele.

IMagna Carta (1215)

Isayinwe ngaphansi kwemibandela yeNkosi uJohn waseNgilandi, iMagna Carta yaqinisekisa ukuthi inkosi yayingekho ngaphezu komthetho. Yaqinisekisa izinqubo ezithile zomthetho nemithetho evikelwe ekuboshweni ngokungenasizathu − ngqa phambili enqubweni efanelekile. U-Claus 39 uthi: “Akekho umuntu okhululekile ozobanjwa noma aboshwe... ngaphandle kwesahlulelo esingokomthetho sontanga yakhe noma umthetho wezwe.” Lesimiso kamuva sathonya iziNguqulo Zomthetho-mthetho we-U.S.

I - English Bill of Rights (1689)

Ngemva kweNguquko Ekhazimulayo, iSiphakamiso samaLungelo saseNgilandi saphinde sanqanda amandla obukhosi, savimbela ibheyili eqisayo, isijeziso esinonya nesiphithiphithi, futhi samisa ilungelo lokunxusa inkosi. Samisa nesidingo semvume yephalamende yentela. Lemibono yahamba inqamula i-Atlantic futhi yaguqula imibono yamakoloni ngenkululeko.

IBhili Lamalungelo Lase - United States (1791)

Izinguquko zokuqala eziyishumi zenkululeko eyisisekelo e-U.S.: ukukhuluma, inkolo, ukunyathelisa, ukuhlangana, kanye nelungelo lokuphatha izikhali, kanye nesivikelo ekuphenyeni okungenangqondo nokuquleka, ukuzigodla, nokuphika ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwenqubo efanele. I-Bill of Rights ihlala iyisici sembulunga yonke sezemalungelo omphakathi.

Isimemezelo Samalungelo Abantu Nesakhe (ngo - 1789)

Njengoba yamukeleka phakathi neNguquko yaseFrance, lencwadi yamemezela ukuthi “ukubopha, impahla, ukulondeka, nokumelana nokucindezelwa” kwakungamalungelo emvelo. Yathonya izinhlangano zentando yeningi kulo lonke elaseYurophu nokubunjwa kwemithetho eminingi kamuva.

ISimemezelo Somhlaba Wonke Samalungelo Abantu (1948)

Ngemva kokwesabekayo kweMpi Yezwe II, iZizwe Ezihlangene zamukela iUDHR, eyamisa uhlu olubanzi lwamalungelo omphakathi, ezombangazwe, ezomnotho, ezenhlalo, namasiko. Nakuba ingaboshelwa ngokomthetho ngokwayo, iye yabangela izivumelwano eziningi, imithetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho yesizwe, nemithetho. Ukufunda umbhalo ogcwele weUDHR.]

Izinhlobo Zamalungelo Omphakathi

Amalungelo ezakhamuzi ahlukaniswa ngezigaba ezintathu ezibanzi: ezezombangazwe, ezesizwe nezezenhlalo.

Amalungelo Ezombangazwe

Amalungelo ezombangazwe enza izakhamuzi zikwazi ukuhlanganyela ekubuseni izwe lazo. Okubaluleke kakhulu ilungelo lokuvota. Ngaphandle kokuphoqa, amanye amalungelo kunzima ukuwasebenzisa. Amalungelo ezombangazwe ahlanganisa nelungelo lokufuna isikhundla, ukumisa amaqembu ezombangazwe, nokuhlanganyela ekuphikiseni ngokuthula. Lamalungelo aqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni uyaqhubeka elandisa kubantu.

Elinye ilungelo elibalulekile lezombangazwe yile inkululeko yokuhlangana [. Izakhamuzi kumele zikwazi ukujoyina amaqembu, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi amaqembu ezombangazwe, izinyunyana zezisebenzi, noma izinhlangano zezisebenzi, enkambisweni yethonya njengeqembu. Ngaphandle kwalelilungelo, ukungavumelani kungahlukaniswa futhi kuncishiswe.

Amalungelo Omphakathi

Amalungelo omphakathi aqinisekisa ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo ngaphansi komthetho futhi avikele ekucwaseni. Ahlanganisa ilungelo lokuqulwa ngokulunga, ukukhululeka ekuhlukunyezweni, nesivikelo sokuzimela. E-United States, uMthetho we-Civil Rights ka-1964 nomthetho owalandela wawenqabela ukucwaswa okusekelwe ngokohlanga, ibala, inkolo, ubulili, noma imvelaphi yobuzwe.

Ukwanda kwanamuhla kwamalungelo omphakathi kuvikela abantu ngabanye, abantu abakhubazekile, namanye amaqembu ancishisiwe. AmaMelika aphethe uMthetho wokukhubazeka (1990) nemithetho yeNkantolo Ephakeme eqondene nomshado ibonisa indlela amalungelo omphakathi ashintsha ngayo izindinganiso zomphakathi. [[FLT:]] Ukufunda okwengeziwe ngemithombo ye-ADA .

Amalungelo Omphakathi

Amalungelo omphakathi ahlanganisa ukuthola izidingo zemfundo, ezokwelapha, izindlu, nokulondeka kwezenhlalo. Nakuba ngokuvamile kuxoxwa ngokuthi “amalungelo aqinisekile” adinga ukuthathwa kukahulumeni, abalulekile ukuze akwazi ukuhlanganyela ngokugcwele emphakathini. Ngokwesibonelo, ngaphandle kwemfundo, izakhamuzi azinakuwasebenzisa ngokuphumelelayo amalungelo ezombangazwe. Ngaphandle kobuhlakani bempilo, abantu bangase bangakwazi ukusebenza noma ukuhileleka ekuphileni komphakathi.

Izimiso zamalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke, njengeSivumelwano seZizwe Zonke sezezomnotho, somphakathi nesobuNtlalo, ziqaphela lamalungelo njengasemthethweni. Nokho, ukumiswa kwawo kuyahlukahluka kakhulu emazweni. Abanye bawabheka njengemigomo yesifiso, kuyilapho amanye ewafaka emthethweni womthetho - sisekelo.

Imishini Elinganisela Amandla Kahulumeni

Ukuze kuvinjelwe ukuphambana kukahulumeni, idemokrasi ithembele ezimisweni zokwakha ezihlola igunya.

Ukungalawuleki Nokuhlolwa Nokulinganisela Komthetho - sisekelo

Umthetho-sisekelo olotshiwe umisa umthetho ophakeme kakhulu wezwe. Uhlukanisa amandla phakathi kwamagatsha nezingqimba zikahulumeni (ubufester). Ngokwesibonelo, uMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. unika uhulumeni othile amandla athile kuyilapho ugcina amanye emikhakheni. Lokhu kukhishwa kwegunya kudala izinkundla eziningi zokuhlanganyela komphakathi nokumelana nobushiqela.

Ukubukezwa Kokwahlulela Nezinkantolo Ezizimele

Ijaji elizimele lingashaya imithetho noma izenzo zezikhulu eziphula umthetho-sisekelo noma amalungelo ayisisekelo. Isimiso sokubukeza kokwahlulela, esimiswe ku- Madison [1803], sivumela izinkantolo ukuba ziqede izenzo zikahulumeni. La mandla ayisivikelo esibucayi; ngaphandle kwawo, izishaya-mthetho zingakhipha imithetho ephula inkululeko ngaphandle kokuzifunela.

Inqubo Nombuso WoMthetho Ofanele

Inqubo elindelekile iqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni ngeke unciphe abantu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwezinqubo ezilungile. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukuqaphela, ukuzwa, umenzi wesinqumo ongakhethi, nelungelo lokudlulisa izicelo. Ukubusa komthetho kudinga ukuba imithetho icace, iqondiswe emphakathini, futhi isetshenziswe ngendlela efanayo. Ivimbela isenzo sobushiqela, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi isikhundla sabo siphakeme kangakanani.

Umphakathi Wangaphakathi Nezingcingo Ezikhululekile

Umphakathi wezakhamuzi ogcwele intshiseko − kuhlanganise nezinhlangano zenzuzo ezingakhonziwe, amaqembu ezembuyiseli, nemithombo yezindaba ezizimele − amasu njengeqembu eliqaphayo lokulawula umbuso kahulumeni. Izintatheli zidalula ukonakala, abashisekeli bakhuthaza ukuphikiswa kwemithetho engalungile, nezakhamuzi ezivamile zisebenzisa imithombo yezindaba yezenhlalo ukuze zihlele. Ohulumeni abazama ukuvimbela labadlali ngokuvamile babhekene nokulahlwa kwasekhaya namazwe ngamazwe.

Ukukhetha Okukhululekile Nokufanele Ngezikhathi Ezithile

Izinhlelo zinikeza ithuba elivamile lokuthatha indawo yezikhulu ezisebenzisa kabi igunya. Kodwa okhetho kuphela alwanele; kumelwe bakhululeke ekuxhashazweni, ekucindezelweni kwevoti, nasekuphazanyisweni kwamanye amazwe. Ukubala okusobala, izikhomishane zokukhetha ezizimele, nemikhankaso emikhulu idingekile ukuze okhetho lube imishini yangempela.

Izinselele Zamalungelo Esikhathi Esizayo

Naphezu kwamakhulu eminyaka entuthuko, amalungelo omphakathi abhekene nezinsongo ezinkulu ekhulwini lama - 21.

Isilinganiso Semali Kahulumeni Nezindaba Eziyimfihlo

Inkathi yemitapo yezemitapo iye yenza ukuba kube nokuqapha okungakaze kubonwe. Izinhlangano zikahulumeni ziqondisa ukuxhumana, ziqoqa imetameter, futhi zisebenzise ukuqashelwa kobuso. Nakuba ngokuvamile kufanelekile ukulondeka kwesizwe, le misebenzi ingaba nobulongwe futhi iphazamise ekuzinzeni. E-United States, PUTIOTT Act [[[FLT:]] PUSTIOT Act eyanda amandla okuhlola angaphezulu ngemva ko-9/11], iholele ekukhathazekeni ngokuphamba. Abagxeki bethi iqoqo lemininingwane eminingi yemininingwane yezehlakalo iphula iSine. [[FLT:]] USTERUS USTERNT Act ] I-FLT] Izama ukulinganisela amalungelo, kodwa izimpikiswano ziyaqhubeka. [[FL:] [FL:]]

Ukucwasa Nokungalingani Kwezimiso

Imithetho ingaqinisekisa ukulingana, kodwa ubandlululo luyaqhubeka. Ukucwasa kwezinhlanga, igebe, ukuthola izindlu, nobandlululo olungafani esimisweni somthetho womthetho kululaza amalungelo omphakathi. Izinhlangano ezinjenge Live Live Live Conquement ziye zaqokomisa indlela ubudlova bamaphoyisa obuhlasela ngokungenakulinganiswa izisulu zezigaba ezimbalwa. Ngokufanayo, ukucwaswa kwabesifazane, LGBTQ+ abantu, kanye nenkolo embalwa kuhlala kugcwele ezingxenyeni eziningi. Ukusingatha lezimpikiswano akudingi ushintsho olungokomthetho kuphela kodwa futhi kudinga ukushintsha kwezindlela zezezenkolo.

Ukucindezelwa Kokungavumelani Nokuncipha KwamaNorm Abusayo

Abanye ohulumeni bacindezela ukuphikiswa ngamabomu ngokucusumbula, ukuhlukumeza izintatheli, nokumangalelwa okuxhaphazayo (isudi le-SLAP). Ebuthweni lentando yeningi, ukwanda kwabaholi be populist abahlasela izinkantolo ezizimele, imithombo yezindaba, kanye nobuqotho bokhetho kusongela. Uma imithetho efana nemiphumela yokukhetha noma ukugwema i-napoticsm / iphulwe, imingcele yamandla iba yize. Izakhamuzi kumelwe zizimisele ukuvikela lemigoqo yethuka ngokwethukela, njengoba ngokuvamile kunzima ukubuyisela kunemithetho ebhaliwe.

Ukungaqondi Nokungaqondi

Ukwanda kokwaziswa okungamanga, ngokuvamile okukhuliswa yimithombo yezokuxhumana, kungasonta impikiswano yomphakathi futhi kunciphe ukwethembana ezinhlanganweni. Ohulumeni bangasebenzisa kabi ukugxeka abaphikisi noma ukuthethelela imingcele yokukhuluma. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, izinkampani ezizimele zisebenzisa amandla amakhulu kakhulu ekulweni nokwaziswa okubonakalayo. Izimiso zobungcweti ezilwa namanga alimazayo ngaphandle kokucubungula okungokomthetho kuyinselele enkulu yentando yeningi yanamuhla.

Ukufinyelela Kwesigaba Esiphezulu Ezimweni Eziphuthumayo

Phakathi nezinhlekelele (izinhlekelele zemvelo, izinhlekelele, ukusongela kwamaphekula), ohulumeni bavame ukuthatha amandla okuphuthuma. Nakuba ngezinye izikhathi kudingekile, la mandla angasetshenziswa kabi. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuvalwa kwezikhathi zomthetho kanye nezikhathi zonyaka phakathi nobhadane lwe-COVID ka-19 kwaphakamisa imibuzo mayelana nokulingana. Izinkantolo emazweni amaningi zabulala imingcele ebanzi. Ukuqondisa ukushaya umthetho nokushona kwelanga kwezindlela eziphuthumayo kuqinisekisa ukuthi imibuso yesikhashana ayihlali phakade.

Indima Yezakhamuzi Ekuvikeleni Amalungelo Ezakhamuzi

Nazi izinyathelo ezisebenzayo abantu abangazithatha:

Umbono Wezizwe Zonke Nezindinganiso Zembulunga Yonke

Amalungelo ayahlukahluka ezizweni zonke, kodwa umthetho wezizwe zonke unikeza isisekelo. Isivumelwano sezizwe zonke samalungelo omphakathi nawamapolitiki [ICCPR], esigunyazwe amazwe angaphezu kuka 170, sibopha imibuso ukuba ihloniphe inkululeko yokukhuluma, yokuhlangana, nenqubo efanele. Izimiso zesifunda ezinjenge-European Convention on Human Rights ne Interprecional American Court of Human Rights of Human Rights (ICPR)[FLD] , ezigunyazwe amazwe angaphezu kuka-1700], zibopha imingcele yokufuna inkululeko yokukhuluma, ukuhlangana, nenqubo efanelekile. Izimiso zesifunda ezinjenge-European Convention on Human Rights ne-International Courtment of Human Rightss Courters of Instnations.

Nokho, ukuthobela akunakwenzeka. Imibuso yabaphathi ivame ukusayina kodwa ingazinaki izivumelwano. Ngisho nedemocratical ibhekene nokugxekwa kwemikhuba enjengejele elinganqunyiwe eGuantánamo Bay noma i-wampdating engenagunya. Ukuqonda izindinganiso zamazwe ngamazwe kusiza izakhamuzi ukuba zifune isivikelo esiqinile futhi zidalule ubuzenzisi.

Isiphetho

Ukuqonda imingcele yamandla kahulumeni akuyona imfuneko ewusizo yokulondoloza inkululeko. Amalungelo enkululeko nesivikelo esifanayo, awahlala njalo; kumelwe avikelwe njalo. Okuhlangenwe nakho okungokomlando kubonisa ukuthi amalungelo ayanda lapho izakhamuzi ziwafuna futhi zisenza isivumelwano lapho izakhamuzi zingasebenzi. Izindlela zikahulumeni olinganiselwe (‘agconstigation's sescheme, acureary, umphakathi wesizwe (‘ubumba inqubo esebenzayo kuphela uma ingxenye ngayinye isebenza. ’ . izakhamuzi zonke zinendima ekulondolozeni lezo zinhlelo. Ngokuzi ukuthi zikhona, zihileleke ezimisweni zentando yeningi, futhi zibambe amandla, singaqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni uyaqhubeka uyinceku, hhayi inkosi, hhayi inkosi yabantu.