Isisekelo Sikahulumeni Olinganiselwe

Isimiso sikahulumeni olinganiselwe sihlanganiswe eqenjini lomthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Izimpande zaso zibuyela emuva eMagna Carta ka-1215, eyaqala ukugomela ukuthi amandla enkosi ayengenakwenqatshelwa nokuthi ngisho nenkosi kwakumelwe ithobele umthetho. Izingqondo ezikhanyiselwe njengoJohn Locke walwela amalungelo emvelo – ukuphila, inkululeko, kanye nempahla - ukuthi akukho hulumeni ongathatha ngokomthetho, futhi uBaron de Montesquie wakhuthaza ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso njengesivikelo sokulwa nonya. Abalawuli bemithetho yomthetho womthetho we-U. S., abathonywe kakhulu yilemibono, eklanywe yizwe ibhungu lapho igunya lezwe elingokomthetho lihlukaniswa ngamabomu. Bakholelwa ukuthi ngokusakaza amandla ngamagatsha nezingalo ohulumeni, bangavimbela ukuphakama kwanoma isiphi isisekelo esisodwa nenkululeko sabantu. Isisekelo sombuso uhulumeni uyaqhubeka nje ukwakheka kwezentengongongongo eMta, futhi umelwa wonke umta, umelwaneze wonke umta wemiyaleko wezombangazwe.

Ukuhlukana Kwamandla

Umthetho-sisekelo umisa amagatsha amathathu alinganayo, ngalinye labelwe imisebenzi ehlukile. ISiphakamiso ISiphakamiso samandla okushaya umthetho eSishaya - mthetho, iSiphakamiso III sinikeza uMongameli amandla aphakeme, futhi iSiphakamiso III simisa amandla okwahlulela eNkantolo Ephakeme nezinkantolo eziphansi. Lenhlangano iqinisekisa ukuthi akukho nhlangano eyodwa engasebenzisa lonke igunya likahulumeni ngesikhathi esisodwa.

  • Igatsha elinomthetho: Congress - eyakhiwe yiNdlu yabameleli neSishayamthetho – inguqumrhu lokwenza umthetho. Igunyaza ukusetshenziswa kwesikhwama semali, igunyaza uhulumeni ukuchitha imali, imemezela impi, futhi ilawula isifundazwe nezentengiselwano zakwamanye amazwe. Ngezikomiti zayo zobubonisi, iKhomishane iqondisa ukumiswa kwemithetho ngegatsha eliphethe.
  • Igatsha eliphetheyo: UMongameli, njengomphathi omkhulu, ophoqelelayo futhi ophatha imithetho kahulumeni, uyala amabutho ahlomile, uqhube inkambiso yakwamanye amazwe, futhi umise amajaji kahulumeni nezikhulu eziphethe. Igatsha eliphethe lihlanganisa futhi nezinhlangano eziningi zikahulumeni ezikhipha iziqondiso futhi zenza usuku lwe-28to662.
  • [[QUT: 0] Igatsha eliphethe i-Judicial: Izinkantolo zikahulumeni, ezifinyelela umvuthwandaba eNkantolo Ephakeme, zichaza imithetho noMthetho-sisekelo. Zixazulula izimpikiswano, zinqume ukuthi umthetho-mthetho usebenza kanjani futhi uphethe, futhi zinikeza abantu ithuba lokubekela inselele uhulumeni.

Umbhalo wokuqala wesihloko ngasinye ungafundwa eMthethweni - sisekelo Ohlolwayo, olondolozwa uMtapo Wezincwadi Wesishaya - mthetho.

Amasheke Nokulinganisela

Ukuhlukana kwemibuso kukodwa bekuyoba akwanele ukube igatsha ngalinye lingasebenza ngokuzehlukanisa.Isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela sinikeza igatsha ngalinye amathuluzi okulinganisela amanye, kwakha ukulandisa okunamandla kokulandisa.

  • Ukuhlola okungagunyaziwe kuMongameli: Umkhandlu ungadlula i-veto namavoti amabili-sithathu kuwo womabili amagumbi, wenqabe ukuqinisekisa omongameli, uphike ukuxhasa izimali zezinyathelo zezikhulu, futhi ususa uMongameli ngenxa “yesizathu, ukufumbathisa, noma okunye ubugebengu obuphakeme kanye namaphutha.”
  • Iziphetho ezisemkhandlwini: UMongameli angabiza u-veto amandla omthetho, abize uMkhandlu eqenjini elikhethekile, futhi anganikeza iziyalo eziphethe eziqondisa indlela imithetho ekhona ephoqelelwe ngayo – nakuba iziyalezo ezinjalo zisengaphansi kokubukezwa kokwahlulela nezinqumo zezimali zenhlangano.
  • Ukuhlola kobujudiku emagatsheni womabili: Izinkantolo, ngamandla okwahlulela, zingashaya imithetho noma izenzo zezikhulu eziphula uMthetho-sisekelo. UMongameli umisa amajaji, kodwa kumelwe aqinisekiswe iSigele, futhi lapho nje sekuqinisekisiwe, zikhonza ukuphila, ziwavikele ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe.
  • Izimpawu ejajini: Izikhokelo zingaguqula igunya lezinkantolo eziphansi, zihlongoza izinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo ukuze kushintshwe izincazelo zokwahlulela, futhi (ngezinye izikhathi ezingavamile ukusetshenziswa) zingaba abahluleli bahulumeni abahlukene ngenxa yokuziphatha okubi.

Ukuze uthole izibonelo ezengeziwe zendlela amasheke nezilinganiso ezisebenza ngayo, ingosi yesigele sase - United States inikeza umbono owusizo.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Abantu

UMthetho-sisekelo wokuqala awuzange uhlanganise udwendwe oluningiliziwe lwamalungelo abantu ngabanye, iqiniso elesabisa abamelene nombuso we-STéderalist. Ukuze avikele ukuhlaziywa, uJames Madison wasikisela uchungechunge lwezinguquko ezaba iBill of Rights, eyagunyazwa ngo-1791. Lezi zinguquko eziyishumi zivimbela ngokuqondile amandla kahulumeni futhi kancane kancane ziye zanwetshwa ukuba zisebenzise ngokumelene nohulumeni ngomthetho weSiphendulo seNguquko se - 14.

  • Isichibiyeli sokuqala:[ Imithetho elawula ukumiswa kwenkolo, ukuvimbela ukusebenzisa inkolo ngokukhululekile, ukuphazamisa inkululeko yokukhuluma, ukucindezela, umhlangano onokuthula, noma ilungelo lokunxusa uhulumeni ukuba alungise izikhalo. Lokhu kuyi-relected commospitary.
  • Isichibiyeli esihlangene: sivikela ilungelo labantu lokuphatha futhi baphathe izikhali, ilungelo iNkantolo Ephakeme elilichaze ngokuthi umuntu onelungelo elinomlando olinganiselwe (umz., ukunqatshelwa kokuba nedumela elibi).
  • Isichibiyeli seNguquko sesithathu: Abaqaphi ngokuphenya okungacabangeki nokuquleka. Ukugcinwa komthetho ngokuvamile kudinga isiqinisekiso esisekelwe yisizathu okungenzeka saso, futhi ubufakazi obutholakalayo bephula loludambisa ngokuvamile abunakusetshenziswa ngaphansi komthetho wokususa.
  • Isichibiyeli se-pith: Siqinisekisa ukumangalelwa okukhulu kwabahluleli ngenxa yobugebengu obungathi sína, sivimbela izingozi eziphindwe kabili, sivikela ekuzihlukaniseni, futhi siqinisekisa ukuthi akukho muntu ophucwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho. Ihlanganisa futhi ukuthatha u-Claus, idinga ukukhokhwa uma impahla yomuntu siqu isetshenziswa emphakathini.
  • [[FLT: 0] Isichibiyeli se-eghth Exchange: Ibheyili ephakeme, izihlawu, izijeziso ezinonya nezingavamile. Lokhu kulungisa izimpikiswano ngezimo zasejele, isigwebo sokufa, nesigwebo esilinganiselwe esiphoqelelwe.

I - National Archives inikeza umbhalo ophelele nesizinda esingokomlando sendlela ngayinye yokulungisa.

Ubumbano: Ukuhlukana Kwemibuso Phakathi Kwesizwe Namazwe

Uhulumeni wombuso uhlukanisa ubukhosi phakathi kukahulumeni wezwe nohulumeni wombuso, ngamunye onegunya lokuzibusa ezindabeni ezithile. Lesi sakhiwo sinikeza ukulondeka okumbaxambili ekubuseni: izakhamuzi zihlala ngaphansi kohulumeni ababili abahlukene, ngamunye unamandla okuhlola omunye.

  • Imibuso yesizwe (egunyazwe): UMthetho-sisekelo unikeza uhulumeni igunya ezindabeni zikahulumeni zemali yesizwe – ukusungula imali, ukumisa impi, ukuqondisa ibhizinisi lamazwe ahlukene nakwamanye amazwe, ukuqhuba izinxulumano zezindaba, nokumisa imithetho yemvelo efanayo.
  • Izwe (eligciniwe) lesimo:[ ISichibiyelo seshumi sishiyela izifundazwe yonke imibuso engaphathiswanga i-United States noma enqatshelwe ezifundazweni. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukugcinwa kwamaphoyisa, imfundo, ezentengiselwano zomhlaba, ukusetshenziswa kwezwe, imithetho yomshado, kanye nokhetho.
  • Imibuso ekhona: Zombili izinga likahulumeni zingakhokha intela, zakhe imigwaqo, ziboleke imali, zimise izinkantolo, futhi ziqikelele imithetho ezindaweni lapho iziphathimandla zikhona. Uma imithetho kahulumeni nohulumeni ingqubuzana, i-Supremacy Claus ye-Constitution ngokuvamile yenza umthetho kahulumeni ube ngowokuqala.

I-Federalism ayimi ndawonye. Phakathi namakhulu eminyaka, ukwanda kwegunya lesizwe ngemisho yezentengiselwano namandla okusebenzisa imali kuye kwashintsha ukulinganisela, kodwa kuhlala kunezikhungo zokuhlola intando yeningi, kuzama izimiso ezingase zithathwe kamuva ngokwesizwe. Izimpi ze-Contemporary cishe ukubekwa kwempova ngokomthetho kahulumeni okuphikisana nemithetho kahulumeni yezidakamizwa, noma ukumelana nomthetho kahulumeni wokugcinwa kwezokufuduka kwabantu ophethe, kubonisa ukuxabana okuqhubekayo okusebusweni obuhlangene. KukaProfester on reliturationismism, bheka i-USA.gov kahulumeni kahulumeni nohulumeni.

Indima YeNkantolo Ephakeme Ekuchazeni Imingcele Yamandla

INkantolo Ephakeme ingumhumushi woMthetho-sisekelo oyinhloko, futhi izahlulelo zayo zichaza imingcele yegunya likahulumeni. Imfundiso yokubukezwa kokwahlulela yasungulwa Marbury v. Madison (103] [1803]), lapho uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall eqinisekisa amandla eNkantolo ukuba amemezele isenzo seSigungu sombuso esingekho sigebeqele sobuProkra. Lelicala lanikeza ijaji eliyinselelayo i-jaji elibalulekile emagatsheni omthetho nasemagatsheni aphethe.

Izinqumo zokuphawula ngezwe ziye zanwebeka noma zathola imingcele yamandla kahulumeni. MCULLOch v. Maryland (1819) zaqinisekisa igunya elibanzi likahulumeni ngaphansi kwe-Faneod ne-Father Claus, kuyilapho [ New York v. United States[FLT][6] [i-19] ne[FLT] [FLT] [FLT] shz v. United States [1997] iphinde yabuyisela amandla eSivumelwaneni sombuso sokulawula ohulumeni. i-Enteversion of Intependetion v [FFLT:] ngaphansi kombuso wezwe, i-Activestions.[4] (i-AFFFFFF]) (icedk) (i.6) (iphakakhulu lemithetho ephansi) (inkulu kakhulu) (inkulu kakhulu) ngaphansi kombuso).[umbuso, u-umbuso, u

Izinselele Zesikhathi Esizayo Zokuvimbela Uhulumeni

Izindawo eziningana zibangela impikiswano enkulu ngokuthi uhulumeni uye weqisa yini imingcele yawo efanele.

Injabulo Nezindaba Zomuntu Siqu

Ikhono likahulumeni lokuqoqa ukwaziswa kwezakhamuzi liye lakhula kakhulu kusukela ekuhlaseleni kwe-September 11. I-USA PATRIOT Act futhi kamuva izinguquko zandisa igunya lokuhlola imishini, ukunikeza amarekhodi ebhizinisi, nokusebenzisa izincwadi zezokuphepha zesizwe. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukuqapha okukhulu kuphula iSichibiyelo sesine seSiphendu kuvikelwe ekufuneni okungacabangeli, kuyilapho abavikeli baphikisa ukuthi amathuluzi anjalo abalulekile ekulwisaneni nomthetho womthetho. Carpenter v. United States [2017], iNkathi ePhakakhulu yanquma ukuthi uhulumeni udinga isiqinisekiso sokuthola amarekhodi angoko engqamuza engokomlando, ukuphawula ukuthi imfishayelo yomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho. Kodwa imingcele iyaqhubeka, ikakhulukazi ukuncintisana kwezekwa kwezesayensi yobuso nokuhlakanipha.

Ukuhleleka Kweqembu Eliphethe Nesenzo Esingekho

Abaholi bobabili ababolekiwe baye baphendukela kakhulu eziqondisweni zezikhulu nakwamanye amathuluzi angahlangani nakancane ukuze bafinyelele imigomo yenkambiso lapho uKhomishane umiswa. Ngokwesibonelo, iziyalo eziphetheyo ziye zasetshenziselwa ukusebenzisa izinguquko zokufuduka, imithetho yendawo ezungezile, nezinhlelo zokuboleka intethelelo yabafundi. Nakuba uMongameli enesu lokuqondisa okukhulu egatsheni eliphethe, ngezinye izikhathi ziye zaphula iziyalo zokuthi ukuthatha izintambo zensimbi noma ukungqubana ngenhloso yokuhlanganisa izintambo. Indaba yesifunda [[FLTL:0] Intsha egcina i-Stown & Tube Co. v. Sawyer[FLTY:1] [1952] Imizamo kaPreesteryman yokuthatha izinsimbi phakathi neMpi yase-Korea, imisa ukuthi uMongameli akanakwenza umthetho ozimele. Umthetho wokuthutha izimvume zokungena kwamanye amazwe amaqembu aqhubeka futhi aqhubeke nokukhokha izivumelwano.

Umbuso Ophethe

Izinhlangano ze-Federal ze-Ndevironmental Protection Agency, i-Secturalies and Exchange Commission, kanye ne-Department of Health and Human Services zikhipha izinkulungwane zezimiso unyaka ngamunye ezinamandla omthetho. Lo “mbuso” uphakamisa imibuzo ngokuthi iSivumelwano seSivumelwano sinikeze abaphathi amandla amakhulu yini. Imfundiso yeNkantolo Ephakeme (i-Chevron"isusa [[FL: 0]]]Chevron U.S.A. Inc. ne-C. i-Naturatural Convideciotion [[[[FLT:], 1984]) yaqondisa izinkantolo ukuhambisana nezincazelo zemithetho ecacile. Nokho, iye yabona ukuhlehlela eNkathini ye-Cevron, ngokuqinisa ukuva kwemibuzo yezentengo yeze yezezombangazwe.[Foctives][2]

Ukunakekela Impilo Nomthetho Wokunakekela Ongadunyiswa

Indima kahulumeni ekunakekeleni impilo imelela umzabalazo ongapheli wemingcele yemithetho yezentengiselwano kanye namandla okukhokha intela. Igunya lomuntu ngamunye eMthethweni we-Affordive Care Act – elifuna abantu ukuba bathenge umshuwalense wempilo – lasekelwa njengentela NFIB v. Sebelius[[FLT] [[1], kodwa iNkantolo yenqaba ngokuqondile impikiswano yokuthi iSivumelwano singaphoqesha umsebenzi wezentengiselwano. Kamuva izinselele zokuthenga iMedicaid futhi ikhokhe izindleko ezithengise imingcele yokusetshenziswa kwamandla kahulumeni. Njengoba imithetho emisha yezempilo neziphakamiso zempilo ivela, ukushukuma kwezwe phakathi kokuzinza nokwenyuko kwesizwe kuhlala kugcwele ubukhazi.

Ukufuduka Nombuso

Isimiso sokuhlanganisa i-SB 1070 iwumthetho osemthethweni wokuhlola ukuma kwe-socialism. Nakuba uhulumeni kahulumeni unamandla okulawula ukuhlaziywa kwemvelo nokugcinwa komngcele, imibuso iye yazama ukulawula abafuduki abangabikwanga ngemithetho yabo siqu cishe, i-SB 1070 kahulumeni efunwayo i-Arizona amaphoyisa kahulumeni ukuze ahlole ukuma kokufuduka phakathi nokuma okungokomthetho. Arizona v. United States [20202], iNkantolo Ephakeme yahlasela amalungiselelo amaningana njengoba idededelwe umthetho kahulumeni kodwa yashiya ingadibekile “ikhokha ilungiselelo lakho”. Izimpikiswano ezindlini ezingcwele, ukuvinjelwa, nokukhutshwa kwezenzo ze-Oulgatelves (DAC) ziyaqhubeka ukubuza imibuzo ngemiqatha ye-mali ye-mali.

Umthetho We - pandemic Namandla Aphuthumayo

Isifo se-COVID 16) sabona ohulumeni kuwo wonke amazinga bephoqelela ukuvalwa, iziphakamiso zembobo, ukuvalwa kwebhizinisi, nezimfuneko zokugoma. Lezenzo zabangela izinselele zomthetho-sisekelo ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo Sokuqala (umhlangano wenkolo), inqubo efunekayo (inkululeko yezomnotho), nezimiso ze-constalism (igunya lendawo). INkantolo Ephakeme, ezimweni ezifana neRoma Katolika Diocese yaseBrooklyn. Cuomo, ilinganisela imingcele ethile yemithetho yokuba khona ezinkonzweni zenkolo, igcina ukuthi ayiyona neze imingcele engokomthetho engokomthetho engokwenkolo, futhi ayiyona esebenzayo. Umqedazwe umbango ovamile.

Ubuchwepheshe, Inkulumo, Namandla Kahulumeni

Ukuvela kwezindawo zezenhlalo zezokuxhumana kuye kwayiphazamisa iSichibiyelo Sokuqala. Imithetho yoMbuso eTexas naseFlorida efuna ukulawula ukulinganisela kokuneliswa ngamapulatifomu amakhulu iye yabekelwa inselele ngokuthi ukuphulwa kwamalungelo ezinkampani ezizimele okungagunyazwanga, kuyilapho ukuxhumana kukahulumeni ngokwakhe nezinkampani zezenhlalo ezikhulumayo ezimelene nokulimaza umphakathi kuye kwacela iziphakamiso zikahulumeni zokuhlola inqubo. INkantolo Ephakeme njengamanje iphazamisa amapulatifomu ukuba akhulume ngendlela ehlukile, nokuthi ingabe uhulumeni ufaka impoqo eqelela ukuphaza ukumelana neSichibiyelo Sokuqala. Lamacala amelela umngcele omusha empikiswano eqhubekayo kahulumeni olinganiselwe ngenkathi yezokuxhumana.

Isiphetho

Ukuqonda imingcele yamandla kuhulumeni wase-U.S. kubalulekile ekubopheni isakhamuzi esinolwazi. Ukuhlukanisa imibuso – ukulinganisela, ukuhlola nokulinganisela, iSiqinganiso samaLungelo, ne-unistism – kuseyisisekelo, kodwa isizukulwane ngasinye kumelwe sichaze futhi sisebenzise lezimiso ezintsha. Izindaba zenkathi yokuhlola ukugoma zibonisa ukuthi umbuzo kahulumeni onamandla akumelwe uxazululwe. Kubafundisi nabafundi, ukutadisha lemingcele akunikezi nje kuphela ulwazi oluqinile lwezindinganiso zedemocricratic ezibusa iMelika. Ngokuhlola imingcele engokomlando, imigodio, izivikelo yezakhiwo, nezimpikiswano zanamuhla, zingahlanganyela kangcono emsebenzini oqhubekayo wokugcina uhulumeni usendaweni yayo efanele.