Ubukhosi Obubodwa BobuFederal AseMelika

Isimiso somthetho se-United States sisebenza ngaphansi kohlobo oluhlukile lobukhosi obubodwa okwaziwa ngokuthi i-unistism. Lesi sakhiwo, esihlanganiswe kuMthetho-sisekelo, sidala ubuhlobo obuyinkimbinkimbi nobunamandla phakathi kukahulumeni wesizwe nohulumeni abangamashumi amahlanu. Abafundi nothisha abafuna ukuqonda ukuthi amalungelo ombuso ngamunye avikelwe kanjani, ukuqonda ukuhlanganiswa phakathi kombuso nomthetho osemthethweni akuyona imfuneko yemfundo yemfundo yemfundo. [1] Kuyimfuneko esebenzayo yokuhlanganyela ngokuphumelela nokufunda ngokufunda. I-Frederalism iklanyelwe ukukhuthaza ubunye nokwehlukahluka-hlukene, ivumela ukuvikelwa kwezizwe ngenkathi emayelana nokubusa nokuguqula kwezindawo zendawo. Lesi sihloko sihlola izinqubo zomthetho, imithetho engoko, izincazelo zomthetho, izincazelo zokwahlulela, nokuxazulu eziqhubekayo ezichaza ukuvikelwa kwelungelo ezweni lesizwe eMelika.

Isizukulwane esisungulile saphikisana kakhulu ngokulinganisela okufanelekile kwamandla. I-Anti-Federalist yabesaba uhulumeni okude, onamandla, kuyilapho amaFederalist alwela inyunyana enamandla ekwazi ukuvikela inkululeko nezentengiselwano. Umphumela wokuyekethisa `isimiso esimbaxambili lapho ohulumeni bezwe nohulumeni begunyaza khona izakhamuzi ngokuqondisisa. Ukuqonda lesi simiso kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqondisa indawo engokomthetho, ukusekela ushintsho, noma ukusebenzisa amalungelo abo ngokunempumelelo.

Ukwakhiwa Kwamalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo

IBhili Lamalungelo NeSichibiyelo Se - 14

Isisekelo sesivikelo samalungelo e-U.S. sidume kakhulu kuMthetho-sisekelo. Isisekelo sesisekelo sokuqala, eceleni kwe-Bill of Rights (Izinguquko zokuqala eziyishumi, ezagunyazwa ngo-1791), siveza isisekelo senkululeko uhulumeni angeke ayiphunyule. Lezi zisivikelo zihlanganisa inkululeko yokukhuluma, inkolo, ukunyathelisa, ingqungquthela, nesicelo (ISiphendulo Sakuqala); ilungelo lokuthwala izikhali (Indinganiso yeSiphendumiso); isivikelo ekuphendukisweni okungakholekiyo nokuquleka (Impoqo ye-Foth Rendement; namalungelo ngokumelene nokuzimela ngokwawo kanye nokuzibeka kabili (Imposiso).

Nokho, iSichibiyelo seshumi sicacisa ukuthi imibuso engaphathiswa i-United States ngoMthetho-sisekelo igcinelwe i-Estade. Lesi sabelo sinikeza igunya elikhulu lokwakha isivikelo saso esingokomthetho, ngokuvamile sidlulela ngalé kwesiteshi sikahulumeni esimiswe yiSishaya-Mkhandlu noma iNkantolo Ephakeme. Ubuhlobo phakathi kombuso namandla kahulumeni namandla kahulumeni bashintshwa ngokushintshwa yiSichibiyelo se 14 ngo-1868. I-Ateccometic Procement Clausss yakha ithuluzi elinamandla lokusebenzisa izindinganiso zikahulumeni ezenzweni zikahulumeni. I-Concorporation Doctivemmental Doctivemental, yasungulwa kancane kancane ngezikhathi ze 20-centur Courters Courters, yasebenzisa amalungiselelo amaningi ezindaweni nge-14 zeSivicence, iqinisekisa ukuthi ohulumeni baboshelwa yile lenqubo eyisisekelo esiyisisekelo esiyisisekelo. Le komiti samanje sazimongohulumeni esivamile salenze ngohulumeni bendawo esivamile sakhona sinyenye.

UClaus Onedumela Elibi Nokukhululwa

I-Supremacy Claus (Article VI, Claus 2) imemezela ukuthi umthetho womthetho-sisekelo nemithetho kahulumeni owenziwe ukuba ungene kuyo i-"Umthetho wezwe owenziwe ngokulinganayo""lesi simiso singumthetho we-litye eliqinile lobunye besizwe, siqinisekisa ukuthi imithetho kahulumeni ayinakukwazi ukudlula imingcele esemthethweni kahulumeni. Uma umthetho kahulumeni nokahulumeni uphikisana ngokuqondile, umthetho wezwe uyophumelela ngaphansi kwemfundiso yokudelwa. Ukwesula kungachazwa lapho iSishaya-Hulumeni sisho khona ngokucacile inhloso yaso yokuhlala insimu, noma isho ukuthi lapho isicwangciso somthetho wombuso wemithetho kahulumeni singenakushiya indawo eqinile ukuze ungenele ekuhlanganeni, noma lapho umthetho uphikisana khona ngokuqondile nemfuneko yombuso. Ukuqonda ukuthi ukudilishwa kubaluleke isihluthulelo somthetho wemithetho engokomthetho ezindaweni ezilawulwa ukubusa ezindaweni ezihlukene.

Imithetho Yesizwe Njengendawo Yokulwela Amalungelo Esizwe

ISishaya - mthetho sinamandla ngaphansi kweSiqeshana 5 seSichibiyelo se - 14 ne - Commerce Claus ukuba kumiswe imithetho evikela amalungelo abantu.

Amalungelo Omphakathi Nokumelana Nezingxabano

I-Civil Rights Act ka-1946 iwumthetho omkhulu kahulumeni. Yavala ubandlululo olusekelwe ohlazweni, ebala, enkolweni, ebulilini, noma ezweni emsebenzini (isihloko VII), izindawo zomphakathi (isihloko II), nezinhlelo ezixhaswa nguhulumeni (Isihloko VI), lesi senzo esivunyelisiwe kakhulu emphakathini waseMelika ngokunqanda ukucwaswa kobandlululo nokuphathwa ngendlela engalingani. I-Civil Rights Act ka-1991 kamuva yaqinisa lezisivikelo ngokuvumela ukukhokhwaba nokujeziswa kwenaniselwa kwezenzo zempoqo nenhlawulo ezicatsha. Umthetho we-Federal anti-dimivstion u-oct ka-1968, owenqabela ukucwa kwezikhungo zezelingo, ukukhokhelwa kwezindawo.

Ukumemezela Amalungelo Nokutholakala Kwawo

IVoing Rights Act ka-1965 yasusa izithiyo ezinde zokuvota, njengokuhlola ukuvota, ukukhokha intela yokukhokha, nokwesabisa. Ilungiselelo laso elinamandla kakhulu kwakuyiSiqeshi 5, esasidinga ukulawulwa okunomlando wokucwaswa "pregrancy" noma yiziphi izinguquko zokuvota imithetho nohulumeni kahulumeni. Nakuba isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme Shelby County v. Raker [2013]) yakhipha ngokuphumelelayo inqubo yokukhetha i-preplacence, izisekelo eziyinhloko zokuvikela ukucwaswa kwezinhlanga zisekelwe ekuvotelweni kwe-votiothstiki ezigcinwe ngaphansi kweSigaba 2 se-Act.

Amalungelo Okuwohloka Nethuba Lokufundisa

Amalungu onyaka ka-1990 aphethe uMthetho wezemfundo (IDEA) kanye no-Rosethi 504 we-Rehabilitation Act ka-1973 aqinisekisa ukuthi abafundi abakhubazekile bathola imfundo yomphakathi mahhala nefanele endaweni ebekelwe imingcele enzima. AmaMelika anokuphazamiseka komthetho ka-1990 (ADA) andisa incazelo yokukhubazeka ukuze aqinise ukuthi isivikelo esihloselwe i-ADA sisebenza, indawo yomphakathi, ezokwethuthwala, nezokuxhumana nabantu, zidinga indawo yokuhlala elinganiselwe ukuze kuqinisekiswe ithuba elifanayo. I-ADA iziMithendezelo zika-AAAAAA, elaziswe ngokuthi incazelo yokukhubazeka, ukuze kuqinisekwe ukuthi isivikelo esihlongokwayo se-AAAAAA sisebenza kabanzi.

Imithetho KaHulumeni Njengemibutho Yokuthulula Izwe

UMahluleli uLouis Brandeis uchazwa ngokudume ngokuthi "imisebenzi yokuvikela idemokrasi" Endaweni yokuvikela amalungelo, lokhu kuye kwabonakala kunembile ngokuphindaphindiwe. Nakuba umthetho kahulumeni ubeka iphansi, imithetho kahulumeni ivame ukwakha uphahla oluphezulu, uzama izimiso ezingase zithonye izindinganiso zesizwe kamuva.

Ukwandisa Izivikelo Ezimelene Nobutha

Umthetho olwa nobandlululo uvikela ekukhetheni okusekelwe ngokohlanga, ibala, inkolo, ubulili, nemvelaphi yobuzwe. Imibuso eminingi iye yandisa imithetho yayo elwa nobandlululo ngokucacile ihlanganisa isivikelo esisekelwe ekuthandekeni kobulili nasobulilini. Izwe njenge New York, California, ne-Illinois liye lamisa imithetho eqinisekisa ukuthi i-LGBTQ ivikelekile emsebenzini, emakhaya, nasezindaweni zomphakathi. Ngokufanayo, amanye amazwe aye amisa imithetho evikela ekucwaseni ngokucwasa okusekelwe emthonjeni wenzuzo yobulili, isiza abaqashi abaphansi abasebenzisa izimali zokuhlala.

Ukuphayona Ngedwa Nokulondeka Kokwaziswa

Kungekho mthetho kahulumeni wezindaba zomuntu siqu obanzi, izifundazwe ziye zahola ekuqondiseni imininingwane eyimfihlo. I-California Consumer Ancy Act (CPA), eyamiswa ngo-2018, inikeza abathengi amandla okulawula ukwaziswa kwabo siqu ngendlela engakaze ibonwe ngaphambili, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokwazi ukuthi imuphi ukwaziswa okuqoqwayo, ilungelo lokukususa, nelungelo lokukhetha ukuthengwa kwayo. Le nqubo yombuso yezwe neyomhlaba wonke iye yaphoqelela izinkampani ukuba ziphinde zicabange ngemisebenzi yazo futhi iye yasebenza njengesilinganisi semithetho yeminye imibuso futhi ngisho nemithetho kahulumeni engcono. Izwe enjengoVirginia neColoradow iye yalandela ngokuvumelana nezicilo zayo eziphambili.

Ubulungisa Bobugebengu Nokugweba Inguquko

Ohulumeni boMbuso banegunya eliyinhloko phezu komthetho wobugebengu. Lokhu kuye kwavumela umehluko ophawulekayo ezimisweni zokugweba, ezenzweni zamaphoyisa, kanye nokulungisa ubulungisa. Izifundazwe eziningi ziye zashukumisela ukuba zibhalise noma ziqede insangu, inkambiso ephikisana ngokuqondile ne-Substances Act kahulumeni oGunyazi kodwa ibonisa imibono eguquguqukayo yombuso ngokulunga komthetho wobugebengu nenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Izwe liye lathatha futhi laba phambili ekuguqukeni kwemali, ukuncika kwemali emalini, futhi lisebenzisa ezinye izindlela zokufaka isigwebo sobugebengu obungaphazanyiswanga. Lezi zinyathelo zibonisa indlela izinqumo ezibonisa ngayo ukuthi zingawa ngezindlela ezibonisa ngayo izindinganiso zomthetho nezidingo zendawo nezidingo.

Ukumisa Izindlela Zokungenela Phakathi KoMbuso Nomthetho Ozimele

Ubuhlobo phakathi komthetho kahulumeni nohulumeni bulapho kuvela khona ngempela ubunkimbinkimbi besimiso saseMelika. iSupremacy Claus iqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni uphakeme, kodwa ngaphandle kwezindawo ezidukile, imibuso isebenzisa igunya elikhulu elihambisanayo.

Igunya Elikhona Namalungiselelo Okubambisana

Ezindaweni eziningi zezimiso, imithetho kahulumeni nohulumeni isebenza ngapha nangapha. Umthetho wendawo ezungezile uvame ukuhlanganisa i-Evironmental Protection Agency nezinhlangano zendawo ezungezile. I-United States ingamisa izindinganiso eziqinile zokungcoliswa kwezimoto kune-hulumeni, njengoba iCalifornia iye yenza ngezindinganiso zokukhipha imoto ngaphansi kwe-Ceac Air Act ekhethekile. Ngokufanayo, izindinganiso zezisebenzi njengeholo elilinganiselwe zibekwa umthetho kahulumeni, kodwa amazwe amaningi ayala ukuba kubekwe iholo eliphezulu, ukusebenzisa igunya lawo elihlangene lokunikeza isivikelo esikhulu sezisebenzi. I-copagativementism ihlanganisa ukuxhasa nokuphatha izimali nokuphathana, njengoba kubonakala eMedid, lapho amazwe enikeza uhlelo ngaphansi kweziqondiso zikahulumeni.

Umshini Wokuzitika

Intethelelo imelela ukulinganiselwa okuyinhloko kwegunya likahulumeni. Ukuhlenga kwenzeka lapho uMkhandlu uhlanganisa ulimi ngokomthetho osho ngokucacile injongo yawo yokukhulula umthetho wezwe. Ukulwa kwenzeka lapho kuvumelana nomthetho wombuso nombuso ngokomzimba. Ukukhululwa kwenzeka lapho uhlelo lokulawula lwenzeka lubanzi kangangokuba lushiya kungabikho thuba lomthetho kahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuthatha umhlala phansi kwe-Invince Infection Security Act (ERICA) kuye kwachazwa ukushwa kwemithetho kahulumeni ehlobene nokuhlelwa kwezisebenzi, ukwenza icebo lokuqondisa inqubo elifanayo lezwe lonke. Ukusetshenziswa kwalezi zimfundiso ngokuvamile kuhlelwa ngokucophelela, kudinga ukuhlaziswe kwenhloso yemithetho ye-conomgomo kazwelonke kanye nemiphumela yemithetho yemithetho yesizwe.

Izinselele Nokucindezeleka

Ukungezwani phakathi kokuzibusa kwezwe nokufana kwesizwe kubangela ezinye zezimpi eziphikisa kakhulu. Ukuphikisana ngokugcinwa kwemithetho yokuthunyelwa kwabantu, imithetho yendawo ezungezile, ukunakekelwa kwempilo, namalungelo okuvota kuvame ukugxila ekutheni imibuso iye yadlula igunya layo noma ukuthi uhulumeni wezwe uye weqa imingcele yayo engokomthetho-sisekelo. INkantolo Ephakeme isebenza njengomlungisi wokugcina kulezimpikiswano, ukuchaza uMthetho-sisekelo nemithetho kahulumeni ukuze kuchazwe imingcele kahulumeni namandla ombuso.

Izimpawu Eziwuphawu Ezathonya Ukulinganisela Kwamandla

Ukuhlola amacala eNkantolo Ephakeme ePhakeme kunikeza umbono ocacile wendlela umthetho kahulumeni nohulumeni osebenza ngayo ekuvikeleni amalungelo. Lamacala akhanyisa izimiso zokuphakama, ukuhlanganisa, nokusungulwa kwezwe.

Ukumisa Igunya Lesizwe

  • McCulloch v Maryland (1819): Inkantolo Ephakeme, ngaphansi kukaMahluleli Omkhulu uJohn Marshall, yasekela ukuthi uMkhandlu wawuchaye amandla ngaphansi koMfaneleko noMfaneleko uClaus ukuze uqashe ibhange lesizwe futhi leyo ndawo ayinakwehlisa intela inhlangano kahulumeni. Lendaba yamisa ngokuqinile isimiso sokuphakama kukahulumeni.
  • Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Lelicala landisa amandla oMkhandlu ngaphansi kwe-Chommerce Claus, liphethe lelogunya likahulumeni phezu kwemithetho kahulumeni ephikisanayo ephakathi kwezwe. Labeka isisekelo samandla okubuyisela uhulumeni.

Ukuvikela Umuntu Ngamunye Okhululiwe Eqenjini LikaHulumeni

  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Lesi sinqumo esiphawula ingqophamlando samemezela imithetho kahulumeni ehlukanisa izikole zomphakathi wabafundi abansundu nabamhlophe ezingezona ezisemthethweni ngaphansi kweSivikelo sika Claus seSichibiyelo se-14th Reformation. Yashintsha yaba "elingana" nemfundiso ye . Genberson[ futhi yaba yi-partumle yenhlangano elwela amalungelo omphakathi.
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): INkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi iSichibiyelo se 14 sifuna zonke izifundazwe ukuba zigunyaze imishado efanayo yobuhlobo bobulili futhi ziqaphele imishado eyenziwa kwezinye izifunda. Lesi sinqumo siphucuze imithetho kahulumeni evimbela ukushada kwemibhangqwana ehlukene nexhunyiwe, sikhombisa indlela ukuchazwa komthetho-mthetho-mthetho okungenza ngayo ukuba ifanelane phakathi kwezifundazwe.

Isimiso Sokusebenzela Uhulumeni Namalungelo Esimanje

  • Shelby County v. Hoker (2013): INkantolo yakhipha indlela yokuhlanganisa eyayisetshenziselwa ukunquma ukuthi yimaphi amagunya ayengaphansi kokubekwa kuqala kwe-Province Act kahulumeni ngaphansi koMthetho wamaLungelo. Isinqumo sayiqeda ngokuphumelelayo imfuneko yangaphambi kwe-Councillation, ukubuyisela igunya eliyinhloko lomthetho wokuvota ngezinguquko ezindaweni. Lendaba ibonisa ukushukuma kwemithetho esemthethweni nemibuso ekuvikeleni amalungelo okuvota.
  • Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (202): INkantolo igqibile [[FLT:] Roe v. Wade[ [[FLT]] ne[FLT]] u-Casey, iphethe ukuthi uMthetho-mthetho awunikezi ilungelo lokukhipha isisu. Isinqumo sabuyisela igunya lokulawula ukukhishwa kwesisu ezifundazweni, kwaphumela ekuvimbeleni imithetho yesizwe kusukela ekuvinjelweni okuphelele ukuya ekuvikeleni. Lendaba imelela ukushintsha okukhulu kokulinganisa kwesizwe ngokuphathelene nenkululeko yomphakathi ngokuphathelene nezimiso zomzimba.

Izincwadi Eziwusizo Zemfundo Nezemfundo Yesibalo

Kubafundisi nabafundi, isimo esinamandla sobuzwe sinikeza ithuluzi lokufundisa elinamandla. Kubonisa ukuthi ukuvikelwa kwamalungelo akusona isimo esikhona kodwa kuyinqubo eqhubekayo yokuxoxisana, ukushaya umthetho, nokuzinqumela. Ukuqonda ukuthi kuphi lapho ungafuna khona ukuvunywa kwephulwe umthetho ("ekhodi elisenkantolo yombuso noma yombuso) kuyikhono elisebenzayo.

Izinhloso Zokuletha Impi Yokulwela Uhulumeni Ekuphileni

Othisha bangahlanganisa imisebenzi ehlukahlukene ezifundweni zabo zesikole ukuze bathuthukise ukuqonda i-socialism nesivikelo samalungelo. Ukuhlanganisa izimpikiswano ngezenzakalo zamanje ezihlobene nokukhulula kukahulumeni noma ukusungulwa kukahulumeni kuvumela abafundi ukuba balwisane nezingxabano zangempela. Ukuqulwa kwecala le-mock kanye nokuzilolonga kwenkantolo okusekelwe emacaleni eNkantolo Ephakeme yamuva kungasiza abafundi ukuba baqonde izimpikiswano zomthetho nokucabanga. Ukuhlola imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni nokuziqhathanisa noMthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wezwe kuveza ukuhlukahluka kwezindinganiso zamalungelo ezweni lonke. Izikhulu zezikhulu zezikhulu zezinhlangano zezesigaba sombuso sase-Americanvivileviletion Union, ihhovisi lomphakathi lomphakathi, noma isikhulu sommeli sombuso singanikeza ukuqonda ngendlela yokusebenza kwesivikelo esingokomthetho.

Indima Yezinhlangano Eziyizisebenzi Zokuqeqeshelwa Ukuphatha Abanye

Izinhlangano ezingafaki nzuzo zifeza indima ebalulekile ekwakheni uhulumeni. Amaqembu anjenge-ACLU, iNaACP Legal Defense and Education Fund, nezinhlangano ezisekelwe kuhulumeni zenkululeko yangaphakathi zinikeza amacala angokomthetho enkantolo yombuso neyombuso ukuze ziphoqelele futhi zandise amalungelo. Zihlanganyela futhi ekufuneni isivikelo esiqinile kuwo womabili amazinga kahulumeni. Ukuqonda umsebenzi walezi zinhlangano kunikeza abafundi ukuqonda okuqinisekile ukuthi ushintsho olungokomthetho lusebenza kanjani phakathi kwesimiso sombuso.

Isiphetho

Ubuhlobo phakathi komthetho wezwe nombuso ekuvikeleni amalungelo abantu buyisici esichazayo sokubusa kwaseMelika. Yisimiso esiklanyelwe ukuba siphendule kokubili izidingo zomphakathi nezindinganiso zobuzwe, sikhuthaza ukusungulwa kokunye kuyilapho sisekela isisekelo sobulungisa kubo bonke. Umthetho wesifunda unikeza isakhiwo esifanayo samalungelo angenakuwephula, kuyilapho umthetho wezwe nemithetho yemithetho yezomthetho kahulumeni inikeza isilinganiso esengeziwe sesivikelo. ISiphendulo seshumi siqinisekisa ubunye besizwe, kodwa iSiphendulo se-Cealastiki nesakhiwo soMthetho-sisekelo sibekela imibuso ephawulekayo, sidala ukuhlanganisa okunamandla okuhlela indawo engokomthetho yaseMelika yonke. Abafundi nabafundisi, ukuthuthukisa ukuqonda okuyinkimbinkimbi kwalendawo kuyisisekelo sokwaziswa nokusebenza kwezwe elihlangene nezwe eliyinkimbinkimbi.