Ukuqonda Ukwehlukana: UHulumeni uphikisana nohulumeni omelene ne - Federal Jurision Esimisoni Esingokomthetho Sase - United States

Ubuhlobo phakathi kwesifundazwe nombuso buyinsika eyisisekelo yesimiso somthetho sase-United States. Kubafundi, othisha, nanoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda indlela ubulungisa baseMelika obusebenza ngayo, ukuqonda ukuthi yiliphi izinga likahulumeni elisingatha izindaba ezithile ezingokomthetho ezibalulekile. UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., kanye namakhulu eminyaka okuchazwa kokwahlulela, umisa isimiso senkantolo lapho isifundazwe nezinkantolo zezwe ngasinye sinegunya elihlukile kodwa ngezinye izikhathi elingenandawo. Lesihloko sinikeza ukuhlolwa okubanzi kokwahlukanisa phakathi kwemibuso nombuso, sisho imibuso yawo ehlukene, imithwalo yemfanelo, nezimiso zomthetho eziwabusayo.

Iyini Icala?

I-Julistiation ibhekisele egunyeni lenkantolo ukuzwa nokunquma icala. E-United States, igunya lihlukaniswa phakathi kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni nohulumeni, ngalinye elinezingalo zalo nemingcele elithathwe kuMthetho-sisekelo, izimiso zikahulumeni, nomthetho-mthetho. Kunezici ezimbili eziyinhloko zokulawula: umbuso ophethe ngokubusa ngecala [ [igunya lombuso] [inkantolo] [igunya lombuso] (igunya lenkantolo lohlobo lwecala lomthetho) futhi linemithetho engokomthetho [[FLT]] (igunya lenkantolo phezu kwamaqembu ahilelekile). Izinkantolo zesifunda zilinganiselwe, zingezwa kuphela izinkantolo ezigunyazwe yi-Constitution noma imithetho yombuso. Inkantolo, inkantolo, ihluke ngokuhlukanisa inkantolo ezivamile futhi azinakuzwisiwe yicala.

ISichibiyelo seshumi kuMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. siqinisa lokhu kuhlukana ngokugcina ezindaweni yonke imibuso engaphathiswa uhulumeni kahulumeni. Ngenxa yalokho, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisingatha izimpikiswano eziningi ezingokomthetho ezweni, kusukela ekuphuleni kwezimoto kuya ekuvumelaneni nezindaba zomkhaya. Ukuqonda ukuthi isiphi isimiso senkantolo sinamandla okuzwa icala kuyisinyathelo sokuqala ekuqondiseni indawo engokomthetho yaseMelika.

Icala Elizimele: Igunya Lezinkantolo Zesizwe

Igunya lokubusa liyigunya lezinkantolo zikahulumeni lokulalela amacala ahilela imithetho kahulumeni, uMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., izivumelwano, noma izingxabano phakathi kwezifundazwe noma izakhamuzi zezifundazwe ezihlukene. Ukubusa kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni kuchazwa ngokuyinhloko eSigabeni III soMthetho-sisekelo futhi kusungulwe kakhulu yi-Congress. Izinkantolo ze-Frederal ziyizinkantolo ezinegunya elilinganiselwe, okusho ukuthi zingalalela kuphela amacala awela phakathi kolunye lwezigaba ezichazwe nguMthetho-mthetho noma imithetho engokomthetho. Izindawo eziyinhloko yemithetho kahulumeni zihlanganisa nalokhu okulandelayo.

Isinqumo Semibuzo KaFederal

Icala eliphethe i-Fourcent Reformation likhona uma "liphakama ngaphansi" komthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., umthetho kahulumeni, noma isivumelwano sika-United States. Lesi isisekelo esiqondile segunya lenkantolo kahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, sithi ukuphulwa kweSichibiyelo Sokuqala esikhululekile, inselele ekwakhiweni kwemithetho yemithetho kahulumeni, noma izimpikiswano ngaphansi kwemithetho yamalungelo esemthethweni engokomthetho enjengeSihloko-Sihlalo somthetho VII somthetho we-19649 ayimibuzo kahulumeni wonke. Impikiswano yezwe kumelwe ivele ebusweni besikhulu esihoxisiwe; akunele ukuba ukuvikela kukahulumeni kungaphakanyiswa kamuva. Lomthetho uqinisekisa ukuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni zilalela izindaba lapho uhulumeni uhulumeni uzwa khona ukuthi impikiswano iphakathi. Inkantolo yesifunda sezwe linendaba esikhulu sombuso othile, isikhulu sendaba esithile sesifunda sezwe.

Ukulahlwa Okuhlukahlukene

Ukubusa kwezindawo ezihlukahlukene kuvumela izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba zilalele amacala phakathi kwezakhamuzi zasezifundazweni ezihlukene (noma phakathi kwesakhamuzi sase-U.S. nesakhamuzi sakwamanye amazwe) uma isilinganiso sempikiswano sidlula ama-$75 000, inzuzo nezindleko kuphela. Injongo yokulawula kwezinhlobonhlobo iwukunikeza i-litum engathathi hlangothi ezinkantolo ezihlukene, ukugwema ubandlululo lwezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Icala lingasekelwa ngokuphelele emthethweni wezwe, kodwa lisazwakala enkantolo yamazweni uma amaqembu ehlukene futhi umnyango wemali ufezekile. Ukuhlukahlukahluka okuphelele kwemali kuyadingeka, okusho ukuthi akukho muntu ovamile ongaba isakhamuzi wezwe njenganoma yisiphi isigebengu. Isizwe esinqunywe yizwe yi-sifundazwe yi-sifunda sezebhizinisi. I-Frivesithimu esiyinhloko sigunyazwe senkantolo enkantolo.

Isikhulu Sasezikhundleni Zokulwa Nempi YaseMaritime

Izisebenzi zomthetho zasolwandle nowasolwandle zihlanganisa izigigaba ezihlanganisa ukuhamba ngemikhumbi nokuthumela amanzi angenayo ngaphakathi kwe-United States, kuhlanganise nezilwandle, imifula, amachibi, nemisele. Lokhu kuhlanganisa izinto ezinjengezivumelwano zolwandle (umz., izivumelwano zokuthumela), izitopi ezibangelwa amanzi angenayo (umz., ukungquzulana, ukulimala komuntu siqu), kanye nezindaba ezihlobene nokulondolozwa, ukukhokhwa, amachibi, namathe emikhumbi. Izinkantolo zesifunda zinegunya elikhethekile ezinkantolo ezithile zeze-admiral, kuyilapho izinkantolo zikahulumeni zingalalela ezinye ngaphansi "ukufuna ukukhokha" umthetho ovamile, ovumela inqubo yomthetho evamile. Izekwenziswa umthetho wezwe, kodwa ezingaphansi kwemithetho ye-ova engokomthetho engokomthetho engokomthetho.

Ukuvinjelwa Kwemali

Izinkantolo ze-Federal zinegunya elikhethekile emacaleni awile. I-Bankruptic Code ye-U.S. inikeza uhlelo olubanzi kubantu ngabanye nasemabhizinisini abangakwazi ukukhokha izikweletu zabo ukuze bathole isiqalo esisha ngokushwabadela noma ngokuhlelwa kabusha. Amacala ebhankiprotheni agcinwa ezinkantolo ezikhohlokele zemali kahulumeni, eziyizinkantolo zesifunda ze-U.S. izingxenye zezezimali ezizimele. I-gamende limboza zonke izimali zababolekwayo, iziboshelaniso eziboshelwayo, futhi icala elihlobene nendawo ewile. Icala le-Bankiptacy lingahlanganisa izimpikiswano eziyinkimbinkimbi zomthetho wempahla, umthetho wesivumelwano, nelungelo, ngokuvamile elihambisana nomthetho owenziwayo. Izindawo ezizizisebenzelayo, ezivimbela izivumelwano eziningi ezikotholwe ekuhoxelweni kwemali, yisimesembuko yembuko yemali embusweni yezwe yomphakathi.

Izenzakalo Ezathinta I - United States Njengeqembu

Izinkantolo ze-Federal ziphethe futhi amacala lapho uhulumeni wase-United States eyiqembu. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukumangalelwa komthetho womthetho kahulumeni ngenxa yokwephulwa kwemithetho kahulumeni (umz., ukushushumbisa izidakamizwa, ukwebiwa kwentela, ukwebiwa kwempahla kahulumeni) kanye nezindaba zomphakathi lapho uhulumeni emangalela noma emangalelwa. Izinkantolo ze-Federal Tort Apectes Acts zivumela abantu ukuba bafake uhulumeni othile icala leze emakhampathini athile ezisebenzi zikahulumeni. Ngaphezu kwalokho, amacala aphikisa izenzo zezinhlangano zikahulumeni (umk., ngaphansi kwe-Administrative Procedure Actal Act) zizwakala ezinkantolo zesifunda. Izinkantolo zesifunda futhi zisingatha izindaba ezihilela amanxusa, abefundisi bomphakathi, nezigesandleko, kanye nezimpikiswano phakathi kwezindawo ezimbili zikahulumeni (eziya ngokuqondile enkantolo zombuso noma ezingaphansi kweNkakhulu) ngaphansi kweNkakhulu leNkakhulu leNkakhulu.

Isigwebo SikaHulumeni: Igunya Elivamile Lezinkantolo Zendawo

Igunya likahulumeni lihlanganisa igunya lezinkantolo zikahulumeni lokulalela amacala ahilela imithetho kahulumeni nezindaba ezingagcinelwanga ngokuqondile izinkantolo zikahulumeni. Izinkantolo zoMbuso ziyizinkantolo zegunya elivamile, okusho ukuthi zingalalela cishe noma yiliphi icala elingangeni ngokomthetho okhethekile wezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Isifundazwe ngasinye sinesimiso saso siqu sezinkantolo, esivame ukuhlelwa izinkantolo zokwahlulela, izinkantolo eziphakathi, nenkantolo ephakeme. Imibuso ihlanganisa uhlu olubanzi lwezindaba ezithinta ukuphila kwezakhamuzi.

Izimpikiswano Ezihlangene Nokumangalelwa Kwezamabhizinisi

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisingatha izingxabano eziningi zesivumelwano, kuhlanganise nokuphulwa kwezivumelwano zokuthengiswa kwezimpahla, izinkonzo, indawo, nomsebenzi. Izinhlangano zamabhizinisi zivame ukunikeza izikhalo zokuphulwa kwesivumelwano, ukukhwabanisa, nokuncintisana okungalungile ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Nakuba ezinye izimpikiswano zamabhizinisi zingase zihlanganise imibuzo kahulumeni (umz., ukuphambana kwezivumelwano zomthetho kahulumeni), ukuthengwa kwezentengiselwano okuningi kusekelwe emthethweni wezwe noma eMthethweni wenkolo wenkolo yenkolo, oye wamukeleka cishe kuzo zonke izigaba zomthetho.

Umthetho Womkhaya Ubalulekile

Umthetho womkhaya cishe uyindawo yombuso kuphela. Izinkantolo zoMbuso zisingatha isehlukaniso, ukwahlukana ngokomthetho, ukuwinwa kwabantwana nokuvakashelwa, ukusekela kwezingane, ukusekela kobungane (ubusimoni), ukutholwa, ukubeletha, nezinguquko zegama. Izinkantolo ze-Frederal azinagunya lomthetho womkhaya ovamile, nakuba ngezinye izikhathi zingakhuluma ngezindaba ezihlobene nokungabikho kwamalungelo emalini, izinzuzo zikahulumeni, noma ukubusa ngokwehlukene. I-FUDIN Child Leaubeation Jurisdiction and Enforcementmentmentment Act (UCJEA) ne-Uctal Famistalitest Family Serst Act Act (UF) ye-USSRASA) inikeza ukuhlanganiswa kwemicity enkantolo yomthetho womkhaya ezibondawomthetho womkhaya eziphakathi kwezwe.

Impahla Nomthetho Wangempela Wefa

Izimpikiswano ngokuphathelene nendawo nempahla yomuntu siqu ziwela ngaphansi kwegunya likahulumeni. Lokhu kuhlanganisa izindaba ezinjengezimpikiswano zokuthiwa, izimpikiswano zezihloko, izingxabano zomninindawo, ukwakhiwa kwezindawo nezindawo zisebenzisa imithetho, intengo, nezimpikiswano zemingcele. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zichaza imithetho yempahla nemithetho yezenzo, amashende, nokuphathiswa kwezentengiselwano. Nakuba ezinye izigebe zempahla zingahlanganisa izimpikiswano zikahulumeni (umz., indawo ephambili ngaphansi kweSikhawulo seSichibiyelo sesihlanu), usuku-yokubekwa kwemithetho yempahla kusingathwa izinkantolo zikahulumeni.

Umthetho Wesigebengu

Icala elikhulu lobugebengu liyenzeka ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Izwe ngalinye linomthetho walo wokujezisa ochaza amacala (kusukela emacaleni angafanele anjengezebi ezincane ezingeni lokubulala) kanye nezijeziso. Abameli besifundazwe noma abashushisi balethe amacala ngenxa kahulumeni. Ubugebengu obuningi, ukweba, ukuphamba kwezidakamizwa, nokushaya umthetho wemilaliso yemilaliso, nokushayela ngaphansi kwethonya kubekwa icala enkantolo yombuso. Umthetho we-Federal ulinganiselwe emacala ahilela izithakazelo zikahulumeni, njengobugebengu obuhilela ukuhweba ngezidakamizwa, ukuphanga ibhangethengi, ukuthuthwa kwezidakamizwa, ukuviswa kwemiza kwamanye amazwe. Kungenzeka ngesenzo esifanayo somthetho ombuso nomthetho kahulumeni (umk. g., ukuphanga); ukuhlasela okunjalo, kokubili ukuhlasela kwezwelo, nakuba kubekwe icala eliphiwe-Jeardslard, nakuba kudlalwa ukumangalelwa ngecala okungundayo, ukuvinjwa okuka kuka-Grealdridieald (kuhlangene) kungenziwa yicala efanayo, futhi kungenziwa kanye neyamumo

Umthetho Ongenamthetho

I-tort ithi: “Amaphutha e-tovil abangela ukulimala noma ukulahlekelwa okushonelwayo. Okukhulukazi izindaba zomthetho. Izindaba zokulimala komuntu siqu, ukungasebenzi kahle kwezempilo, ukubekwa kwecala, ukuhlanjalazwa, ukunganaki, nokucasula zibekwa ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Nakuba amanye amacala ayizithombe engakhuthaza ukubusa okuhlukene uma amaqembu evela ezifundazweni ezihlukene futhi inani lempikiswano lingaphezu kuka $75 000 (75,000), umthetho osetshenziswayo uyoba umthetho wezwe (ngaphansi kwemfundiso ye-Erine). Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisebenzisa imithetho yazo siqu yezezomthetho futhi ngokuvamile zinezigaba ezikhethekile (umg., izigaba ezincane) ukuze zibhekane nezindaba zempi.

Ifa Nefa

Ukuphatha izinqumo, izimali, nezindawo kungaphansi kwegunya likahulumeni. Izinkantolo zezesifundazwe zengamela ukwabiwa kwempahla yomuntu ofile, izivumelwano zokumisa, ukumisa ababhuli noma abaphathi, nokuxazulula izimpikiswano phakathi kwezindlalifa. Izindawo zokuqondisa, imikhumbi evikelayo, nezindawo ziyizindaba zezwe. Izinkantolo zesifundazwe ngokuvamile azihilelekile ekuthatheni iprobate, nakuba zingazwa izindaba ezingokwesivumelwano njengalokho okushiwo noma okufunwa yizwe elivela ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni.

Ukuziphindiselela Kwamanje: Lapho Zombili Izimiso Ziwa

Kwezinye izimo, kokubili izinkantolo zikahulumeni nohulumeni banegunya lokuzwa uhlobo olufanayo lwecala. Lokhu kwaziwa njengokulawula okuhlangeneyo. Uma i-atlaff ikhona, ingakhetha ukuhlanganisa i-compliation noma inkantolo yombuso (izimfuneko ezilawulayo zikahulumeni ziyahlanganwa). Ngokuphambene, ummangalelwa obekwe enkantolo yombuso angase akhethe ukususa icala enkantolo yombuso ukuba belibekwe khona ekuqaleni. Izimo lapho ukubambisana ngokuvamile kuhlanganisa okukhona kuhlanganisa okulandelayo.

Amacala Amalungelo Omphakathi

Ukuphulwa kwemithetho yelungelo lomphakathi kahulumeni (umz. 42, U.S.C. 1983 ngenxa yamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo ancishiswe ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni webala) kungalethwa enkantolo kahulumeni noma kahulumeni. Izifunda eziningi futhi zinemithetho yazo siqu yamalungelo ezakhamuzi enikeza amakhambi afanayo. AmaPlaintiff ngokuvamile akhetha inkantolo kahulumeni ngenxa yezinzuzo zomthetho, njengokuthola imithetho ekhululekile noma ukutholakala kwenkokhelo yommeli. Nokho, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zifaneleka ngokugcwele ukuzwa imibandela yelungelo lomphakathi, futhi abanye abaholi befuna inkantolo yezwe ngenxa yezizathu zokufuna ukuvumelana noma ukucwasana kwendawo.

Imithetho Yendawo Ezungezile

Iziphazamiso ezivela ngaphansi kwemithetho yendawo ezungezile, njenge-Celean Water Act, i-Cease Air Act, kanye no-hulumeni, ngokuvamile ziwela enkantolo evumelanayo. Zombili izinkantolo zikahulumeni nohulumeni zingazwa amasudi ezakhamuzi ezifuna ukuphoqelelwa kwezimiso zendawo ezungezile. Izifundazwe eziningi ziye zanika igunya lokusebenzisa izinhlelo zikahulumeni, zisungula izinhlelo zokugcinwa kwemithetho ehlelekile. Icala elithi lihilela ukwephulwa kwemvume yendawo ezungezile lingase lingeniswe enkantolo kahulumeni, kuyilapho umthetho kahulumeni othi uwe wempicala noma icala lingase lilethwe enkantolo yezwe.

Ukucwaswa Ngenxa Yomsebenzi

Ukucwasa umsebenzi kungahlanganisa kokubili imithetho kazwelonke ne-social Discription. Ngokwesibonelo, i-VII ye-Civil Rights Act ka-1944 inqabela ukucwaswa okusekelwe ngokohlanga, ibala, inkolo, ubulili, nemvelaphi yesizwe; imithetho kahulumeni ngokuvamile yenezela izigaba ezivikelwe noma inikeze amakhambi amakhulu. I-Proctiff ebhekene nobandlululo. I-Ecompantment Obliction Commission (EOC) futhi kamuva ikhokhise enkantolo yezwe ngaphansi kwe-Theot VII, noma iphishekele isiqinisekiso somthetho wezwe esingaphansi kwenkantolo yombuso. Ezinye izinhlangano zikahulumeni zinezivumelwano zomsebenzi eziqinile ne-EOCcoline ukuba zikhiphe inqubo. Ukuhlela kwe-Prective kusho ukuthi i-coff icabangela ngokucophelela lapho i-procestion esekelwe khona, izimiso ze-activestion, imingcele yemithetho, ne-ecculdition.

Ukuvikelwa Nokukhishwa Kwemali

Nakuba umthetho we-aspect we-Securities Act ka-1934 noma i-Sectureties Exchange Act ka-19343) uvame ukubekwa enkantolo kahulumeni, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zibuye zilawule futhi ezingxabanweni eziningi zokungaqiniseki. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zanikeza imvume yokuthi izinkantolo ezithile zikahulumeni zingazwa izikhalazo ezithile ezihambisana nezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Nokho, iSiquarities Litigation Litive Exture Act (SSATA) ivimbela izenzo ezithile zesigaba ngaphansi komthetho wezwe lapho iziphakamiso zisekelwe ekumangalelweni okungamangalelwayo ngokuqondene nokuvalwa kwezelelwa. Ngaphezu kwalokho, izinkantolo zezentengo zenhlangano zisingatha ukubusa kwemishuwa nokuphula umthetho we-parvalvel-ms kanye nokuviva okusho ukuthi umthetho wombuso uhilela ukuvalwa kwemithetho yesizinda somthetho, kodwa kuhlanganisa kakhulu izindaba somthetho.

Ukungafani Okuyinhloko Phakathi KoMbuso Nombuso Ozimele

Nakuba kokubili imibuso yombuso nohulumeni ikhonza ekusekeleni ukubusa komthetho, kunomehluko ophawulekayo othinta abameli, abameli, nesimiso somthetho esibanzi. Ukuqonda lokhu kuhlukanisa kubalulekile kunoma ubani othatha impikiswano engokomthetho noma ofunda isimiso sokwahlulela saseMelika.

Umthetho Osetshenziswayo

Izinkantolo zezenkolo ngokuyinhloko zichaza futhi zisebenzise umthetho kahulumeni, kuhlanganise noMthetho-sisekelo, izimiso zikahulumeni, nezivumelwano. Uma kuzwakala ukuhlukahluka kwezindaba, izinkantolo zikahulumeni kumelwe zisebenzise umthetho wezwe ngaphansi [ Imfundiso (I-EURRF. v. Tompkins, 304 U.S. 64 (1938).). Lokhu kusho ukuthi ngisho nasenkantolo kahulumeni, icala elisekelwe enkantolo yezwe liyodwa liyokwahlulelwa ukusebenzisa imithetho yesinqumo. [FLT:] izinkantolo zezwe [FLT] [FFF:] zisebenzisa isimo sazomthetho, kuhlanganise nezimiso ezivamile, futhi umthetho, futhi zisebenzisa igunya elingokomthetho.

Izinhlobo Zomahluleli Ezizwiwayo

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisingatha amacala ahilela imibuzo kahulumeni, ukwahlukahluka kwesabelo sobuzwe, ukuwiswa kwemali, ukuwiswa kwemali, nezimpikiswano lapho i-United States iyiqembu. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisingatha zonke ezinye izinto, “‘ umthetho wobugebengu, umthetho wempahla, umthetho wesivumelwano, nomthetho we-tort. Umthamo wamacala ezinkantolo zikahulumeni udlula kude leyo enkantolo zikahulumeni. Ngokwemininingwane evela eSikhungweni Sezwe Sezinkantolo ZoMbuso, inkantolo zikahulumeni zisingatha amacala amasha angaphezu kwezigidi ezingu-80 ngonyaka, kuyilapho izinkantolo zesifunda sesifunda sase-U.

Ukukhethwa Nokubusa KwabaHluleli

Abahluleli abaphezulu abahluleli abamisiwe nguMongameli futhi baqinisekiswe yiSigele. Basebenza phakathi nokuziphatha okuhle, okusho ukuphila ngokuphumelelayo. Lokhu ukuzimela kuklanyelwe ukuba kuvikeleke ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe. Amajaji awejaji angomthetho nabemali abashiyiwe. [[FLT:] amajaji esizwe akhethwe ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene: amanye akhethwa ngu-vota, amanye amiswe ababusi, futhi amanye akhethwa ngemithetho yezomthetho noma ukuthunywa kwemithetho. Imithetho iyahluka kakhulu, kusukela ku-6 iminyaka eyi-6 ukuya ku-eminyaka engu-12 noma engu-14 ubudala, futhi amazwe amaningi aphethe izinqumo ezihlukene. Nakuba kuhlangene ukukhethwa kwemithetho engokomthetho kuthinta ukukhethwa, nakuba kuhlangene nokuhlelwa kwemithetho yemithetho.

Imithetho Engokwesayensi

Isimiso senkantolo ngasinye sinemithetho yaso siqu elandela imithetho engokomthetho. Izinkantolo ze-Federal Pagens of Civil Procediture, Federal Umthetho wobuProcediture, ne-Federal Regard of Criminal of Ubufakazi. Izinkantolo zoMbuso zinemithetho yazo siqu elandela imithetho esemthethweni, ngokuvamile efakwa ngemva kwemithetho kahulumeni kodwa engase ihlukane ngemininingwane ebalulekile, njengokuthola izinto, ukusebenzisa imingcele, nezimiso zokuhlola. Ngokwesibonelo, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zidinga ukuvubukulwa okugcwele kofakazi abangochwepheshe ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala, kuyilapho amanye amazwe ethola okulinganiselwe kakhulu. Imithetho ye-Federal yobufakazi ivumela ukuguquguquka kwemizwa ezindlebeniswe ngokuqhathaniswa nemithetho ethile yobufakazi. Lemibathwa kwemithetho yomthetho ye-procracculture ingathonya inqubo.

Inqubo Yokukhanga

Izikhalo ezivela ezinkantolo zesifunda zikahulumeni ziya ezinkantolo ze-U.S. (ezinkantolo ze-applys), neNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. njengenkantolo yokugcina. Isimiso sikahulumeni sinezifunda eziyi 13, kuhlanganise neFederal Treavents esingatha izikhalo ezikhethekile. Izicelo zikahulumeni ziya ezinkantolo eziphakathi (lapho zikhona) bese ziya enkantolo ephakeme kazwe (kakhulu ibizwa ngokuthi inkantolo ephakeme yezwe noma inkantolo yamacala okudluliswayo). Inkantolo ephakeme yase-U. Inkantolo ephakeme yase-U.S. i-Fom. i-Foldol. ingabukeza izinqumo zenkantolo ephakeme yesizwe lapho iphakamisa impikiswano kahulumeni, kodwa ayinakugumbula incazelo yenkantolo yomthetho kahulumeni. Le komiti iqinisekisa ukuthi igunya lokugcina umthetho enkantolo yezwe liphethe inkantolo ye-judiary.

Ukuma Nobukhulu Bejury

Ezindabeni zomphakathi zikahulumeni, izigebengu zejaji ngokuvamile zinamalungu angu-6 kuya ku-12, nemithetho kahulumeni efuna isinqumo esihlanganyelwe ngaphandle kokuba amaqembu asho okuhlukile. Ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, ubukhulu bejaji emacaleni omphakathi buvamile bungu-6 kuya ku 12, kodwa ezinye izifunda zivumela imithetho yejaji embalwa. Imithetho yejaji iyahlukahluka: ezinye izizwe zidinga ukungalingani, kuyilapho ezinye zivumela izinqumo eziningi (umk., 5/6) noma 9/12) emacaleni omphakathi. Izigebebeqe zenkantolo yesizwe kumelwe zivumelane futhi zihlanganise izigebengu ezingu-12; futhi zifuna ukuba kungabi namacala aqinile futhi amalungu angu-12, kodwa iNkanto ephakeme isho ukuthi inkantolo engaphansi kweshumi nambili kuphela yecala elikhudlulwa ngezinyanga eziyisithupha noma ngaphansi kweziyisithupha (i-Frians.) i-Folderns (1970) ifuna izivumelwano ezingathi ezingathi ezingathi sína. (1970).).

Umthetho - sisekelo Nomlando

Ukwahlukana kombuso phakathi kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni nohulumeni kusekelwe eMthethweni-sisekelo we-U.S. kanye nasemlandweni wokusungulwa kwe-America. ISiphakamiso III, iSiqendu sesi-2 sibala amandla okwahlulela kahulumeni, kuyilapho iSichibiyelo seSiphamiso seshumi namathathu simisa ezinye izinkantolo ezingaphansi kwezwe. IFramendrs, iqaphe amandla aphakathi anamandla aphakathi, yakha igunya elilinganiselwe lokusingatha izindaba zezwe ngesikhathi esithile lapho ishiya ukulingana kwamandla okwahlulela ezizweni. ISiphakamiso se-Judiciary sango ka 1789 samisa izinkantolo eziphansi futhi yachaza izifunda izifunda izifunda izifundazwe, kuhlanganise nokuzimo ezihlukene zokunikeza izifundazwe zezwe. Ngaphandle kwezikhathi ezithile, iMikhamu yemithetho engokomthetho engokomthetho engokomthetho engokomthetho ehleliyo, iphinde yandisa izinkantolo eziningi. Izikhulu zeze izinkantolo ze-Celane. Izikhulu zezena zezenabe ngokomthetho zezena, izinkantolo ezingokomthetho eziningi, izingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho zikhona kuphela.

Izicelo Eziwusizo Zabafundi Nabafundisi

Kubafundi abafunda uhulumeni noma umthetho, ukuqonda ukuhlukaniswa kwemithetho kuyasiza ekucaciseni ukuthi kungani izindaba ezithile zizwakala ezinkantolo ezithile. Ngokwesibonelo, kungani isikole esinemininingwane yezehlukaniso sasiyicala eliyicala eliyindida rown v. ibhodi yemfundo[ (1954]) ebekwe enkantolo kahulumeni? Ngenxa yokuthi yayihilela ukuvikelwa kwemithetho yezomthetho-mthetho wezwe (ukulingana ne-Gregoricth Remeticmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentment. Icala ledia cishe njalo enkantolo? Ngenxa yokuthi umthetho womkhaya uyimbangela yezeko yesizwe. Izezezenkolo, iqokomisa izibonelo zangempela, inkantolo ehlukene, kodwa iveza ukuvinjelwa kwenkantolo ehlukene. Inkantolo engokokwahlulele, isigaba senkantolo esivamile, lapho kusiza khona ukuvinjelwa kwecala elivamile, futhi kusiza khona ukucukalela inkantolo esincane.

Isiphetho

Ukuqonda ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwesimiso sikahulumeni nombuso kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuyinkimbinkimbi kwesimiso somthetho wase-U.S. Ngokuqaphela ukuthi yiyiphi inkantolo enegunya ezindabeni ezithile, abafundi, othisha, nochwepheshe bezomthetho bangasebenzisa kangcono izingxoxo ezingokomthetho, ukuhlola, nezimpikiswano zangempela. Lolwazi aluzona nje izinsiza ezifundweni zezemfundo kuphela kodwa lukhuthaza nokuba nezakhamuzi ezifundile. Ukuhlukaniswa kokulawula kubonisa ukuhlelwa komthetho okuhlobana kwesizwe ne-Estance, kuqinisekisa ukuthi izimpikiswano eziningi ezingokomthetho zixazululwa yizinkantolo eziseduze kakhulu nabantu abakhonzayo. Njengoba impikiswano engokomthetho iqhubeka iguqula imidlalo eyandayo, ukuhlaziselana kwezwe nezinkantolo eziphakathi kwezingokomthetho eziphethe iMelika.

ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe ngokomthetho, bheka [[FLT: 1] i-Cornell Legal Information Istitute kahulumeni yezwe ; ukunyukela kakhulu ezinhlabeni zenkantolo, vakashela i-[ Center for State Courts [[FLT:] [FLT]; ngenxa yomlando we-Judiary Act ka-1789, thintana noMkhondo wezwe weZinqolobane [[[FLT:]]; futhi ngenxa yezibalo zamanje ezinkantolo zihlela imisebenzi, bheka yeze-CUctummentstions [FLT] project:[FLT].FF]