Imvelaphi Nokuthuthuka Komlando Kwenqubo KaClaus Emisiwe

I-The Batts Procession Claus, ebekwe kokubili ezinzibeni zesihlanu nezeshumi nane zoMthetho-sisekelo we-United States, ime njengetshe eliqinile lenkululeko yaseMelika. Impande yayo ijule kakhulu emlandweni wezomthetho weNgilandi, edume kakhulu kuMagna Carta ka-1215, eyathi akukho muntu okhululekile ongabanjwa, aboshwe, noma asuswe “ngaphandle kwesahlulelo esingokomthetho sabalinganayo noma ngomthetho wezwe.” Lesimiso `" lo hulumeni kumelwe alandele izinqubo ezingokomthetho ngaphambi kokuncishwa komuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla.[1]

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu, esagunyazwa ngo-1791 njengengxenye yeSiphendulo samalungelo abantu, sivimbela ngokuqondile uhulumeni kahulumeni ukuba anciphe noma yimuphi umuntu “ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Emashumini eminyaka, lokhu kuvinjelwa kwasebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kuphela. Lokhu kungazange kuqashelwe ukumiswa kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane nane seMpi Yesizwe ngo-1868, ukuthi ngemva kweMpi Yombango, umngcele ofanayo wabekwa kohulumeni. Ingxenye 1 yeSiphendulo seshumi nambili inikeza inkululeko ephakathi nombuso waseMelika: “Noma imuphi uHulumeni noma imuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Lokhu kwakwaziwa njengemfundiso ehlanganisayo, kuye kwavumela iNkadeli Enkulu yeNkalelo-Cwalethiwe ukuba isebenzise amalungiselelo amaningi ezindaweni zezwe, izikhulu zikahulumeni zezwe, izikhulu zikahulumeni zezwe.

Uhambo olungokomlando lwenqubo efanele lubonisa ukulwa okuqhubekayo kokulinganisela igunya likahulumeni namalungelo omuntu ngamunye. Izinkantolo zakuqala zaseMelika zachaza inqubo efanelekile ngokuyinhloko ngemisho engokwesiko − ukunikeza isaziso esilungile nokuzwa okunenjongo. Nokho, ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, isibalo siye safundwa ukuhlanganisa isivikelo esingaphansi futhi esiqinile, sivikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekungeneleni kukahulumeni kungakhathaliseki ukuthi inqubo iyasebenza. Le nqubo ehlukene [1] iveza i-"procedtural ne-"ishodated Procestion" enye yemikhankathi ephambili nephikisanayo engokomthetho womthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko.

Ukuze uthole ngokujule kakhulu izisekelo zombhalo nomlando, hlola Cornell Legal Information’s Institute yokwaziswa kweSichibiyelo sesihlanu .

Inqubo ejwayelekile ehambisana nohlelo v. Inqubo engaphansi

Ukuqonda i-Century Claus kudinga ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwamagatsha ayo amabili ayinhloko: inqubo efanelekile yokuhlukanisa kanye nenqubo efanelekile. Zombili zibalulekile, kodwa zisebenza ngezindlela ezihlukene.

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanelekile ibuza ukuthi kanjani [imvume yokudlulisela] uhulumeni kumelwe enze okuthile lapho ephuca othile ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Igunyaza izinqubo ezilungile: isaziso esanele, ithuba lokuzwakala phambi kwenkantolo engakhethi, ilungelo lokunikeza ubufakazi ne-automine edlulisayo, kanye nelungelo lokumelelwa ngokomthetho. Izimfuneko eziqondile kuyahluka kuye ngomongo(*) ukuvinjelwa kobugebengu kudinga inqubo enkulu kunezesikole ukuzwa. Inkantolo Ephakeme iye yathuthukisa ukulinganisela ukulinganiselwa ezimweni ezinjenge . [flut:] Maws v. [FLT] [FLT], ukukala isithakazelo somuntu esingaphansi kwemposo, ukuncishwa kwecala, ukuncishwa kwecala likahulumeni.

Izibonelo ezinephutha zenqubo yokuhlelwa kwesimo sisebenza zihlanganisa:

  • [[QUTY:0] Uvivinyo oluthathelwanayo: Ilungelo lokululeka, ukubhekana nofakazi, ukuhlala uthule, nokuqulwa kwecala lomphakathi elisheshayo.
  • Izindlebe eziphethe: Qaphela nokulalela ngaphambi kokunqandwa kwezinzuzo zenhlalakahle, ukukhubazeka, noma umsebenzi kahulumeni.
  • Izifundo ze-'FLT': Inkonzo yenqubo, ithuba lokunikeza ukuzivikela, nelungelo lokudlulisa.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Inqubo efanelekile engabonakali, ngokwehlukile, ibuza ukuthi yini uhulumeni angayenza. Ivikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni, ngisho noma kulandelwa izinqubo eziningi kakhulu. Lemfundiso inomlando oyimpikiswano kodwa isekela izinqumo ezingokomuntu siqu, ukubuswa komzimba, kanye nobudlelwane bomkhaya.

Izimo ezifanele zenqubo ezidinga uphawu lokuhamba ezweni zihlanganisa:

  • [[Umthetho:0] Griswold v.Connecticut [1965] - – ulahle umthetho ovimbela ukuvimbela inzalo, uqaphela ilungelo lokufihla imfihlo yomshado.
  • Roe v. Wade (1973]) – wakholelwa ukuthi ilungelo lokufihla imfihlo lihlanganisa isinqumo sowesifazane sokuqeda ukukhulelwa (obekwe umthetho amaDobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health [2022], eyabuyisela udaba ezifundazweni).
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – thola ukuthi ilungelo eliyisisekelo lokushada linwebeka kwimibhangqwana ehlanganyela ubulili.
  • [[NT.:0] Umthetho we-Lawrence v. Texas [2003] – imithetho ye-sodoma elula, ivikela ukuziphatha okuseduze phakathi kwabantu abadala abavumayo.

Isilinganiso senqubo edingayo enzima kusaphikiswana kakhulu. Abanye abahluleli basekela ukufundwa okuncane, okulinganiselwe kumalungelo “asekelwe ngokujulile emlandweni nasesikweni salesi sizwe,” kuyilapho abanye bevumela umbono obanzi wenkululeko. Ukuze baqonde kabanzi amacala ayinhloko, vakashelani izinqolobane zezendaba ze-Oyez Project zezendaba .

Inqubo Efanele Yokuvikelwa Esimisweni Sokwahlulela Kwesigebengu

I - System Claus Explone iyabonakala kakhulu esimisweni sokwahlulela kobugebengu, lapho siqinisekisa khona inqwaba yesivikelo salabo abamangalelwa.

Ilungelo Lokuhlala Uthule Futhi Weluleko

Mira v. Arizona (66), iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi isichibiyelo sesihlanu sesilungisi sesinenzelo siye saba yingxenye evamile yokuboshwa, kodwa ukubaluleka kwabo akunakumiswa kakhulu: baqinisekisa ukuthi noma ikuphi ukuvuma kwabo amalungelo ngempela kungokokuzithandela futhi bazi ukuthi akudingekile ukuba bavume ngenkani. Fail kunikeza lezi zixwayiso ezivamile kulezo zinkulumo ezivamile. [FLT]

Ilungelo Lokuqulwa Kwecala Okungenagwegwesi

ISichibiyelo Sesithupha, esifakwe ngokumelene nezifundazwe nge-Currection Clausle, siqinisekisa ukuqulwa kwecala lomphakathi ngokushesha nangomphakathi yijaji elingenacala. Inqubo elandelayo ifuna ukuba ummangalelwa atshelwe ngamacala, akwazi ukubhekana nofakazi, futhi abe nosizo lweseluleko. Icala lengqophamlando Gideon v. Wainwright[ [1963]) liqinisekisa ukuthi amazwe kumelwe anikeze ummeli kubamangalelwa ezinkantolo ezinecala, isinqumo esinwetyelwe kunoma isiphi isigwebo lapho kungenzeka khona.

Umbono Wokungabi Nalusizo Nobufakazi Ngaphandle Kokungabaza Okunengqondo

Inqubo efanele inikeza umthetho wokuba uhulumeni athwale umthwalo wokuveza zonke izici zobugebengu ngokungenakungabaza okunengqondo. Lendinganiso, njengoba iqinisekiswa Umvuthwandaba [ (1970), ibalulekile ekuvikeleni abangenacala. Ukubekwa kwecala kusho ukuthi omangalelwayo akanakuphathwa njengonecala kuze kufinyelelwe isinqumo, futhi amajaji kumelwe ayalwe ngokuvumelana nalokho.

Ukudlulisa Izingcingo Nosizo Lokukhipha I - post

Nakuba kungekho lungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokudlulisa isigwebo sobugebengu, zonke izifundazwe nohulumeni kahulumeni kunikeza amathuba okubukeza. Izimiso zenqubo zilawula futhi izenzakalo zangemva kwe-146, njengezicelo ze-habeas corpus, ezivumela iziboshwa ukuba zibeke inselele ijele elingekho emthethweni. Ilungelo lokusiza ngokuphumelela kweseluleko lidlulela ngenqubo yokunxusa, njengoba kuqashelwa ku Strickland v. Washington

Ukuze uthole ingxoxo eningiliziwe ngenqubo efanele enqubweni yobugebengu, bheka Cornell Legin Information Institute ekungeneni kwenqubo efanele[[FLT: 1].

Inqubo Efanele Kuwo Wonke Amazwe Nasemasimini Okuphatha

Izindlela zokuvikela ezifanele azikho emacaleni obugebengu kuphela. Noma isiphi isenzo sikahulumeni esisongela ukuphila komuntu, inkululeko, noma impahla kumelwe sihambisane nezindawo ezifanele zokuvikela izakhamuzi. Kulelikhulu leminyaka elidlule, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yandisa lezi sivikelo ekuxhumaneni okuhlukahlukene kwezakhamuzi nokuqondisa.

Izithakazelo Zempahla Nezihloko Zamagama

Umqondo we- “conent ” ngaphansi kweNkathi ka-Century Claus uye wanda ngaphezu kwezindawo kanye nezinto zomuntu siqu ukuze uhlanganise izinzuzo zikahulumeni ngokwenzuzo. Goldberg v. Kelly (1970), iNkantolo yaqinisekisa ukuthi abamukelwa bezenhlalakahle banelungelo lokuzwa ngaphambi kokuba izakhiwo ze-Calmetation zitholakale ngaphambi kokuba inzuzo yabo inqanyulwe. Ngokufanayo, isisebenzi somphakathi esilindele umsebenzi oqhubekayo (njengoprofesa owenziwe ngetshe le-intshi) asinakuxoshwa ngaphandle kwesaziso nokuzwa. Lezi zinqumo zimisa ukuzwa kwezindawo ezifaneleyo.[FLT:]

Izithakazelo Zenkululeko Emfundweni Nasedumeleni

Abafundi ababhekene nokuxoshwa noma ukuxoshwa banesithakazelo senkululeko edumeleni labo nasemfundweni. Icala lengqoko yekholi Gos v. Lopez [185] lathi abafundi basesikoleni somphakathi kumelwe banikezwe isaziso okungenani ngomlomo samacala abawamangalelwayo nethuba lokuchaza uhlangothi lwabo ngaphambi kokuba balekwe izinsuku eziyishumi.

Ngokufanayo, izenzo zikahulumeni ezihlazisa umuntu − njengokugcoba umuntu obala ngokumshisela umshushumbisi wezidakamizwa noma ingozi yokulondeka — kungenza umuntu abe nesithakazelo senkululeko, kubangele ilungelo lokuba negama elithi YHWH elicwengisisayo.

Amalungelo Omkhaya Nezimo Zomzali

I-Gue Procession Claus ivikela inkululeko eyisisekelo ezindabeni zomkhaya. Abazali baqaphele ngokomthetho ilungelo lokunakekela, lokugcina umntwana, nokulawula kwabantwana babo, njengoba kubekwe ku- Pierce v.Umphakathi kaSikazi [ [1925] [ne-] Troxel v. Granville [2000]). Ngaphambi kokuba umbuso uqede amalungelo obuzali, kumelwe unikeze ubufakazi obucacile nobugculisayo bokungakufanelekeli nokukhokha abazali, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokunikeza iseluleko.

Ukuthuthela Ezindaweni Ezihlukile Nokuthutha

Ngisho nabantu abangebona abakhona e-United States banelungelo lenqubo efanelekile ekususweni kwenqubo. ISichibiyelo sesihlanu sihlanganisa wonke umuntu ongaphansi kwe-U.S. Nakuba ukuthutha kungokomphakathi kunobugebengu, kumelwe bahambisane nokungakhethi okuyisisekelo . /notice, ukuzwa phambi kommeli ongakhethi, nethuba lokunikeza ubufakazi.

Izinselele Zanamuhla Zenqubo Efanele

Nakuba izimiso eziyisisekelo zenqubo efanele zihlala zingaguquki, ubuchwepheshe obusha nezinguquko zezenhlalo ezintsha zikhona izinselele. Isimiso somthetho siyaqhubeka sivumelanisa, silinganisela ukuphumelela, ukulondeka, namalungelo abantu ngabanye.

Imishini Nezindaba Eziyimfihlo

Izindlela zokuhlola zanamuhla − kuhlanganise nokuhlola indawo ezuzwe yi-cellÚse , ukuqaphela ubuso, kanye nokuqoqwa kwemininingwane eminingi ye-Dimension yesine njengokungathi iphoqelelwe nge-Active Claus. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ku- Carpeenter v. United States [2018]) yaqaphela ukuthi ukufinyelela ingqamuzana elingokomlando lendawo kuhlanganisa indawo ethile kwenza imibhalo yokuhlola edinga isiqinisekiso. Kodwa imibuzo eminingi isele: Iyiphi inqubo efanelekile uma ukuhlakanipha kokwenziwa kusetshenziswa ekwenzeni izinqumo eziphathelene nebheyili, isigwebo, noma i-parole?

Ukulondeka Kwesizwe Nenqubo Ezolandela

Ekulandeleni kwango-9/11, uhulumeni waqinisekisa amandla amakhulu ukuba avimbele amaphekula namabutho asolwayo asolwayo ngaphandle kwenqubo yobugebengu engokwesiko. Icala elinjengo- HAmdi v. Rumsfeld [2004]) waqinisekisa ukuthi ngisho nezakhamuzi zase-U.S. ezimiswe njengezitha zinelungelo lokuthola inqubo efanelekile enqubweni. , ukuqaphela isisekelo esiyiqiniso sokuvalelwa kwazo nethuba elifanele lokungathathiwa komiti yesinqumo sokungatha. Nokho, amakheli aqondile enqubo efanelekile engokoko yokhuseleko lwesizwe asancintiwe, ikakhulukazi kubantu abangewona ama-66959.

Ukuhlakanipha Okungokokwenziwa Nesinqumo Sokuphatha − Ukwenza

Ziyanda, izinhlangano zikahulumeni zisebenzisa izimiso ezizimele ukuze zinqume ukuthi zingaba nezinzuzo, zihlole izingozi, noma ngisho zikhiphe izinhlawulo. Uma lezizimiso zingenakho ukubonakala noma zithambekele ephutheni, zingancisha abantu impahla noma inkululeko ngaphandle kwenqubo enengqondo. Ukuvela “kwezingamandla afanele” kudinga izivikelo ezintsha: ilungelo lokuchaza, ukubukeza komuntu izinqumo ezizokwenziwa, kanye nezindlela zokubekela inselele izinqumo ze-computer ezisekelwe ekhonweni. Izinkantolo nezishaya umthetho zisanda kuqala ukulwa nalezi zinkinga.

Ukugunyaza Amalungelo Nenqubo Efanele

Ukuqamba kuyilungelo eliyisisekelo, kodwa izinqubo zokukhetha ngokuvamile zihlanganisa inqubo efanele ekhathazayo. Imithetho eqinile yokuvota, imithetho yokuvota, i-gerrymanidering, nemithetho yeposi engaguquguquki engahlanganisa i-posi ngo-glain ingathwesa umthwalo lungelo lokuvota ngaphandle kwesaziso esanele noma ithuba lokusela amaphutha. INkantolo Ephakeme Bush v. Gore[FLT] [2000]) inxuse ngokudume ngokulinganayo isivikelo nenqubo efanele ukuvimbela ukulandisa kweFlorida, kodwa ukusebenza okukhulu kwenqubo efanelekile yokukhetha kuhlala indawo ehambisana nomthetho.

Isiphetho: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Kukhona Kwenqubo Edingekayo

I-Gast Procession Clause ingaphezu kakhulu kwemfundiso engokomthetho yobuchwepheshe; iyisiqinisekiso esiphilayo sokuthi amandla kahulumeni ayosetshenziswa ngokufanelekile, ngokubikezelwa, futhi ngokuhlonipha isithunzi somuntu siqu. Kusukela kuyiMagna Carta kuya ku-station yanamuhla yomthetho-sisekelo, isimiso sokuthi akekho umuntu oyophucwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwezimiso ezingokomthetho nembangela yokulunga siye saguqula isimiso somthetho waseMelika.

Ukuqonda inqubo efanele kunika abantu amandla okuqinisa amalungelo abo lapho besebenzelana nokugcinwa komthetho, izikole, abaqashi, noma izinhlangano zikahulumeni. Kusikhumbuza futhi ukuthi ukubusa umthetho kudinga ukuqapha okungapheliyo − ikakhulukazi njengobuchwepheshe nokucindezela kwesizwe kudala izinsongo ezintsha zokuveza ukulunga. I-Cends Claus ihlala iyisivikelo esibalulekile ekumelaneni nezenzo zomthetho zobushiqela, futhi ingumthwalo wesakhamuzi sonke ukuba sazi futhi sivikele.

Ukuze ufunde ngokuqhubekayo ngokubaluleka kwenqubo efanele, hlola umbono Oyez isifushaniso se Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo kanye ogcwele ukubona ukuthi izimpikiswano ezifanele ziwulonge kanjani umzabalazo wenqubo.