ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane: INsika Yamalungelo Omphakathi Nezobulungisa ZaseMelika

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane soMthetho-sisekelo we-United States singenye yezisetshenziswa ezishintsha kakhulu zomthetho emlandweni waseMelika. Siqiniswa ngoJuly 9, 1868, phakathi nenkathi yokuvuselelwa kwezakhiwo, sahloselwe ukuqinisa ukuma okungokomthetho kwabantu ababekade begqilaziwe, ukumisa izinga lesizwe lesabelo sesizwe, ukulingana, nokungalingani. Ngaphezu kwekhulu leminyaka nengxenye kamuva, lesi singuquko sisasele enhliziyweni yezimpikiswano ezilandelayo zesizwe ngokuphathelene kakhulu, inkululeko yomuntu siqu, nemingcele efanele yamandla kahulumeni. Izigaba ezintathu eziyinhloko zesizwe zokubekwa kwesizwe, i-Claus, i-Claus, i-Claus, ne-Active Procementation Provitionsssss , ne-evidecial Clausss . Isilinganiso sokuqala se-imericle.

Umlando: Ukwakha Isisekelo Esisha Ngemva Kwempi Yombango

Indaba yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane iqala ngomlotha weMpi Yombango. Njengoba iConferate yanikezela ngo-1865, i-United States yabhekana nomsebenzi omkhulu wokuhlanganisa isizwe esiphukile kuyilapho ichaza futhi isimo sabantu base-Afrika abasanda kukhululeka abayizigidi ezine. ISichibiyelo seshumi nantathu, sagunyazwa ngoDecember 1865, saqeda ubugqila, kodwa sashiya imibuzo enzima ephathelene nezakhamuzi, isivikelo esingokomthetho, namalungelo ezombangazwe. Izwe laseNingizimu lamisa ngokushesha "Imithetho Eqinile" eyayivimbela kakhulu inkululeko yamaMelika ase-Afrika, yakha isimiso sokucwasandlululaza okungokomthetho esasisongela injongo yayo kanye.

Ekuphenduleni, iRepublican Congress elawulayo yadlulisa i-Civil Rights Act ka-1866, eyathi bonke abantu abazalwe e-United States babeyizakhamuzi futhi banelungelo lokuvikelwa ngokufanayo ngaphansi komthetho. Umongameli uAndrew Johnson wasivikela lesi senzo, kodwa uKhongolo lwadlula ekulawuleni i-veto yakhe. Nokho, ukukhathazeka ngomthetho-mthethwe-mthethweni we-clorin kanye nokuhlala kwayo isikhathi eside kwashukumisela uKhongolo ukuba lufake izimiso zalo eziyisisekelo ekulungiseni umthetho-siseko. Umphumela waba yiSiphendulo seshumi Nesine Nesine, esadlula eMkhandlwini kaJune 1866 futhi savunyelwa yizingxenye ezintathu zezifundazwe ngoJuly 1868.

Ukulungisa kwakuyinselele eqondile yesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme edumile uDred Scott v. Sandford (1857), eyayimemezele ukuthi akukho mAfrikaan American ongaba isakhamuzi sase-U.S.. Yayihlose ukuqeda amaBlack System nokuqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni wezwe unegunya lokuvikela amalungelo abantu ngokumelene nombuso. Inqubo yokuhlobana yayiphikisana, ngemithetho efunwayo eNingizimu ukuba ivume imvume yokufunda i-Uni. Lokhu kubonisa injongo yokuqala yezombangazwe: ukumisa uhlelo olusha lwe-mthetho olusekelwe ekwakheni ilungelo lobunini nobulinganayo ngokomthetho.

Amalungiselelo: Ubuhlanga, Inqubo Efanele, Nesivikelo Esilinganayo

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane sihlelwe saba izingxenye ezinhlanu, kodwa ingxenye yokuqala iqukethe izigaba ezintathu eziye zaba nethonya elinamandla kakhulu emthethweni nasemphakathini waseMelika:

Ukuba Izakhamuzi

Isigwebo sokuqala sesiqephu 1 simisa incazelo ecacile nehlanganisayo yesizwe: "Bonke abantu abazalwayo noma abadalwe e-United States, futhi abangaphansi kwezwe labo, bayizakhamuzi zase-United States naseZweni lapho behlala khona." Lesi sigqebhezana sibekwe phezu [ uDred Scott futhi basungula indinganiso efanayo yesizwe esekelwe ebuntwaneni, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi buhlanga noma ubuzwe. Sihlala siyisisekelo esingokomthetho sokuba yizakhamuzi zobuzibulo eUnited States, isimiso esiye sasekelwa ngokuphindaphindiwe yizinkantolo futhi siyaqhubeka siyisihloko senkulumo yezombangazwe.

Inqubo KaClaus Elindelekile

I-The Baw Process Claus e-Sault Claus isho ukuthi akukho simo esizosebenzisa "noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho." Lesi lungiselelo sinweba inqubo yeSichibiyelo sesihlanu eqinisekisiwe kuhulumeni nasemiphakathini, umqondo owaziwa ngokuthi ukuhlanganisa. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yasebenzisa i-Thected Procession Claus esetshenziswa kakhulu isivikelo ku-Bill of Rights, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenkululeko yokukhuluma, ilungelo lokuphatha izikhali, nesivikelo ekuphenyeni okungacabangeli okungaqondakaliyo, futhi i-inqunum yomkhaya, ukuvikela amalungelo athile abalulekile "esekelwe emqondweni wenkululeko eyaliwe," ngisho noma bengahlelwangahlelwanga obala eMthethweni womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho. Le nqubo ephakathi yemfundiso ephakathi yezindaba zomthetho, ihlanganisa ubuhlobo bomkhaya, nezimiso zomthetho.

Isivikelo SikaClaus Esilinganayo

I-Umeal Protection Claus iyayala ukuba kungabikho mbuso ozothi "uzimisele kunoma ubani ophakathi kwegunya layo isivikelo esifanayo semithetho."Le lungiselelo liyisisekelo somthetho-mthetho waseMelika esimelene nobandlululo. Kudinga ukuba abantu ngokufanayo baphathwe ngokufanayo, futhi inika amandla izinkantolo ukuba zishaye imithetho ehlukanisa abantu ngokuthanda ubuhlanga, ubulili, noma ezinye izigaba ezisolekayo. I-Umeal Protection Claus ibiyimoto yamalungelo amaningi abaluleke kakhulu okunqoba komphakathi emlandweni waseMelika, kusukela ekuncipheni kwemithetho yezikole kuya ekuhlolweni okungokomthetho komshado ofanayo.

Uphawu Lwecala LeNkantolo Ephakeme Echaza ISichibiyelo

Incazelo yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane iye yalolongwa ngochungechunge lwezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme eziye zahlola futhi zandisa ukufinyelela kwayo. Amanye amacala anethonya kakhulu ahlanganisa:

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (11954)

Mhlawumbe alikho icala elihlobene kakhulu neSichibiyelo seshumi nane Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo. Esinqumweni esihlangene, iNkantolo Ephakeme yamemezela ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwakuphula iSivikelo sika-Claus olinganayo. INkantolo yalahla "ukulingana" nemfundiso eyasungulwa [[FLT:] [FLT]] Phovergn v. [186], iphethe leyo misebenzi yemfundo ehlukene yayingenantengahleleki. Brown[FLT] ayizange iphele ngokushesha, kodwa yanikeza isisekelo esingokomthetho nesomthetho senhlangano yesizwe nemithetho ephefumlelweyo, kuhlanganise nemithetho ye-Ovinionctic Act, ihlanganisa ne-Act.[FLT]

[[UMTL:0] Roe v. Wade[[Umthetho:1] (1973)

[ISichibiyelo] v. , iNkantolo Ephakeme yaqaphela ilungelo elingokomthetho lokukhipha isisu ngaphansi kwe-Seed Programme Claus. INkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi ilungelo lokukhipha izisu, elalitholakale ngaphambili licacile emqondweni weSichibiyelo seshumi nane nesine senkululeko yomuntu siqu, lalibanzi ngokwanele ukuba lihlanganise isinqumo sowesifazane sokuqeda ukukhulelwa. Roe [i] yayisinye sezinqumo eziphikisana kakhulu emlandweni waseMelika, futhi ekugcineni yahlenganiswa [FLT:] [4].V.Inhlangano yabesifazane yezempilo [FLT] [FLD] [5] [20] [20]

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Ku obergefell v. Hodges, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi iSichibiyelo se 14 sidinga imvume futhi siqaphele imishado efanayo. INkantolo yasekela isinqumo sayo kukho kokubili i-Sect Procession Claus, evikela ilungelo eliyisisekelo lokushada, ne-Otect Procement Provice Claus Claus, enqabela ukucwa kwemibono esekelwe ekuziphatheni ngokobulili. Isinqumo sasiwukunqoba okungokomthetho kwe-LBGTQ+ amalungelo futhi sabonisa ikhono le-amperment lokuzivumelanisa ukuqonda ukulingana nesithunzi.

Ezinye Izenzakalo Eziphawulekayo

  • Gitlow v. New York (1925): Wasebenzisa izivikelo zenkululeko yokukhuluma yeSichibiyelo Sokuqala ezizweni ngeNkathi elindelekile ka Claus, eqala inqubo yokuhlanganisa.
  • ukuphuma v. Virginia (1967): Imithetho kahulumeni evimbela ukushada ngokwezinhlanga, iphethe ukuthi imithetho enjalo iphula kokubili iNkqubo elindelekile neSivikeli sika Claus esilinganayo.
  • [[INQANAWA:0] i-V. (1971]: ngokokuqala ngqá, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasebenzisa i-Livice Elinganayo Clause ukuze ishaye umthetho ocalule isisekelo sobulili.
  • [FLT]McDonald v. Chicago [2010] : Igunya lesibili leSichibiyeli lokugcina nokuphatha izikhali ngokumelene nombuso nohulumeni bendawo ngeNkathi ka Claus.

Ithonya Elungelweni Lanamuhla Lomphakathi Nobulungisa Bezenhlalo

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siseyithuluzi elibalulekile ekulweleni ukwahlulela ngokulunga nokulingana kwamanje.

Ukulingana Kobuhlanga

Ukulwa nobandlululo lobuhlanga kuyaqhubeka kuncike kakhulu kuyi-Expand Protection Claus. Izenzakalo zamuva ziye zakhuluma ngokuvuma emfundweni ephakeme, emalungelweni okuvota, nasemacaleni obugebengu. Iziqulo ze-Fair Adgings v. Harvard [2023], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi izinhlelo zokuvuma kohlanga emakolishi zaphula i-Exme Protection Clausle, ngokuphawulekayo iguqula inqubo engokomthetho yezindlela zokwahlukahluka.

Ukulingana Kwezinhlanga

I-Umeal Protection Claus iwumgogodla ekuthuthukiseni amalungelo abesifazane. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yawusebenzisa ukushaya imithetho ephatha amadoda nabesifazane ngendlela ehlukile ngaphandle kokuzithethelela okubalulekile. Icala elihilela ukucwaswa emsebenzini, amalungelo okukhulelwa, nokuhlukunyezwa ngokobulili konke kuye kwabekwa ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane, kanye nemithetho kahulumeni enjengesihloko sika-VII.

Ukusakaza Amalungelo

Ingxenye 2 yeSichibiyelo se 14th inikeza ukunciphisa ukumelelwa kweqembu lesizwe uma iphika ilungelo lokuvota izakhamuzi ezifanele. Nakuba leli lungiselelo lingavamile ukuphoqelelwa, izimiso ezibanzi zokulungisa izimiso ze-ID, i-gerrymander, neminye imikhuba okuthiwa isusa i-vonfranching. Isinqumo seNkantolo ePhakade kakhulu kuyi- i-Shelby County v. U-Hamer[FLT] [20:3], eyahlasela imibandela eyisihluthulelo yamaLungelo eVolgarting Act, iye yaholela ekunakekeleni kabusha izigebengwana ze-Pregistlettencestions njengesisekelo senkululeko yokuvota ezimele ukuvota.

Amalungelo Abafuduki

I-Sandrement Claus ibiyisivikelo esibucayi kubantwana babafuduki, iqinisekisa ukuthi noma ubani ozalwe e-U.S. uyisakhamuzi kungakhathaliseki ukuthi abazali bakhona bahlala kwelinye izwe. Lesi simiso siye sabekelwa inselele ezimpikiswaneni zezombangazwe kodwa siye sasekelwa njalo izinkantolo. I-The I-ST Procestion Claus Claus ivikela futhi amalungelo abantu abangebona abavela e-U.S., iqinisekisa ukuthi ukuphathwa kahle ezimweni zokufuduka kanye nakwezinye izenzo zikahulumeni.

Ukwahlulela Kobugebengu Nezenzo Zobuphostoli

I-The Icreate Process Claus iyisisekelo senqubo yobugebengu yaseMelika, idinga ukuqulwa ngokungakhethi, izigebengu ezingakhethi, nesivikelo ekuphenyweni ngokubambisana. I-Umeal Protection Clause iye yasetshenziselwa ukubekela inselele ukuphonsa i-proficial proficial, ukugweba ngokusemthethweni, neminye imikhuba ethinta imiphakathi emincane ngokungenakuqhathaniswa. Umzabalazo wamaphoyisa aguqulayo nokulandisa komthetho wobugebengu uvame ukubiza isiqinisekiso seSiphendulo se-14.

Imfundo NeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Ukuqonda iSichibiyelo seshumi nane kubalulekile kubafundi nakothisha ngokufanayo.

Ukufundisa Amaphuzu

  • Hlanganyela abafundi ezingxoxweni eziphathelene neSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane, njengokuvuma isinyathelo, amalungelo okuvota nesimiso sokufuduka.
  • Hlaziya amacala avelele eNkantolo Ephakeme ekilasini, usebenzisa izinto eziyinhloko ezisekelwe kuzo njengemibono yenkantolo nezimpikiswano ezidluliselwa ngomlomo.
  • Khuthaza abafundi ukuba bacwaninge futhi babonise indlela ushintsho oluthinta ngayo amaqembu athile namuhla, kuhlanganise nezinhlanga ezincane, abesifazane, abantu ngabanye, nabantu abangaphili.
  • Sebenzisa inqubo yokuvivinya umzimba efeza indima ethile lapho abafundi bephikisana khona nezinhlangothi zombili zombuzo womthetho - sisekelo, bebasiza ukuba baqonde izindinganiso ezincintisanayo ezihilelekile ekunqanyulweni kweSichibiyelo se - 147.
  • Qhathanisa iSichibiyelo seshumi nane namalungiselelo afanayo akwamanye amazwe, njengesiqinisekiso sokulingana esiseSiqeshini Samalungelo Nenkululeko saseCanada noma eMthethweni - sisekelo waseNdiya.

Lamacebo angasiza abafundi ukuba baqonde ukubaluleka kweSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane emphakathini wanamuhla futhi abalungiselele ukuba babe izakhamuzi eziboshiwe, ezinolwazi.

Izinselele Nezimpikiswano Zesikhathi Esizayo

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siyaqhubeka sidala impikiswano enzima engokomthetho nezombangazwe. Izimpikiswano eziningana eziqhubekayo zibonisa ukuthi lesi sivumelwano siyaqhubeka sisebenza:

Ukuba Izakhamuzi Ngokufanele

Izakhamuzi u-Clausle ziye zabhekana nezinselele ngezikhathi ezithile zalabo abaphikisa ngokuthi ilungelo lobuzibulo likhuthaza ukufuduka okungekho emthethweni. Abanye abenzi bemithetho baye bahlongoza umthetho wokuchaza kabusha lo mbhalo, kodwa ochwepheshe bezomthetho ngokuvamile bayavuma ukuthi noma iluphi ushintsho lungadinga ukubuyiselwa komthetho-sisekelo. INkantolo Ephakeme ayizange ikhulume ngokuqondile ngobukhulu bobuCanaus kusukela ecaleni lika-1898 United States v. Wong Kim Arks[, eliqinisekisa ubuzibulo bezingane ezingangenisibo.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Imfundiso yenqubo efanelekile engaphansi ihlala iphikiswa kakhulu. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ivumela abahluleli ukuba bafunde izinqumo zabo siqu kuMthetho-sisekelo, kuyilapho abavikeli begomela ngokuthi ivikela inkululeko eyisisekelo edingekile emphakathini okhululekile. Impikiswano ibilokhu ibukhali kakhulu kusukela ekuguqukeni kwe Roe v. Wade[, kanye nabanye abahluleli babuza ukufaneleka kwenqubo efanelekile engaphansi komthetho kanye nabanye bebiza ukusondela okuvinjelwe ngokwengeziwe.

Isivikelo Esilinganayo Nesenzo Esiqinisayo

Izinqumo zamuva nje zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zaphakamisa imibuzo emisha ngokuphathelene nencazelo yesivikelo esilinganayo. Iziqu zecala leFair Admississ iNkantolo yathi izinhlelo zokuvuma ngengozi yohlanga ezingekho mdlalweni zithathe imfundo ephakeme zaphula i-Exct Protectal Protective Claus, kodwa yashiya ithuba lokuthi uhlanga lungacatshangelwa kwezinye izimo, njengasempini. Isinqumo siye sashukumisela amayunivesithi ukuba ahlole izindlela ezihlukile zokuthuthukisa izinhlanga, futhi iye yandisa izimpikiswano ngendima yezinhlanga ekuphileni komphakathi waseMelika.

Isiphetho: Ifa Elihlala Njalo LeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane lokuqala siseyisici esiyisisekelo sentando yeningi yaseMelika. Ukugcizelela kwaso ukulingana nenqubo efanelekile kuye kwaguqula ukulwela amalungelo omphakathi futhi kuyaqhubeka kuthonya ukulwela kwawo amalungelo omphakathi. Kusukela ekulweni kwawo ngemva kweMpi Yombango kuya ekusebenzeni kwayo ezindabeni ezicindezela kakhulu zezenhlalo zekhulu lokuqala, ukuguqulwa kuye kwabonakala kuyithuluzi eliqinile nelivumelanayo lobulungisa. Ukuqonda lokhu kulunga kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofunda umlando waseMelika kanye nempi yawo eqhubekayo yobulungisa. Akuyona nje incwadi engokomlando kodwa ephilayo emema isizukulwane ngasinye ukuba sicabange ngencazelo yelungelo, inkululeko, nokulingana ngaphansi komthetho.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, cabangela ukuhlola umbhalo ophelele woMthetho-sisekelo nge- i-National Archives [, uhlola amacala eNkantolo ephawu oluPhakeme e i-Oyez Project[, noma uhlola ukuhlaziywa kwezazi kwezezemfundo Inhlangano yolwazi ye-Legalture [.]