Ukuqonda Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nane: Isiqondiso Solimi Olungenalulimi Lwezakhamuzi

I- Isivikelo se-Equal Claus idinga izimo zokunikeza isivikelo esifanayo semithetho kubo bonke abantu abangaphansi kwegunya labo. Lomusho uye waba omunye wemithombo ebaluleke kakhulu yokuvikela amalungelo ezakhamuzi e-Melika, usebenza njengesisekelo somthetho-sisekelo sokubekela imithetho nemikhuba yokuvinjelwa kobuzwe. Isivikelo esilinganayo sisebenza kubo bonke abantu, hhayi izakhamuzi, okusho ukuthi ngisho nabafuduki abangabhalwanga umthetho u-Clausle banelungelo lokunikezwa impatho elingana ngaphansi komthetho wezwe.

Isiqephu 2: Ukumelela nokukhipha imvume yamalungelo

Isiqephu 2 sikhuluma ngendlela izifundazwe ezimelelwa ngayo eSishaya-mthetho futhi zihlanganisa amalungiselelo ahlobene namalungelo okuvota. Inikeza ukuthi ukumelelwa eNdlu yabameleli kumele kwabilwe ngokwengqikithi yesizwe ngasinye, ukubala bonke abantu. Nokho, uma uhulumeni ephika ilungelo lokuvota kunoma isiphi izakhamuzi ezineminyaka engamashumi amabili nambili (ngaphandle kokuhlanganyela ekuvukeleni noma kwezinye izenzo zobugebengu), lokho kumelelwa kukahulumeni kuncishiswe ngokwesilinganiso.

Lengxenye yayiklanyelwe ukukhuthaza amazwe ukuba anikeze amadoda ayegqilaziwe amalungelo okuvota ngokusongela ukunciphisa ukumelelwa kwawo eqenjini uma enqaba. Nokho, leli lungiselelo lesijeziso alizange liphoqelelwe, ngisho noma imibuso yaseNingizimu ihlukanisa ngokuhleleka abaMfilamla ebhajwe ngentela yokuvota, ukuhlola ukufunda nokuphatha ngobudlova. Ukubhekisela ku-"am" izakhamuzi kulengxenye kwaphawula okokuqala ngqá ukuhlukanisa ubulili ngokusemthethweni emalungelweni okuvota, okwadumaza abameleli bezekeli beze babesifazane futhi kwanezela ekuxabaniseni amalungelo omphakathi.

Ingxenye 3: Ukungavumelani nehhovisi

Ingxenye 3 yenqabela noma ubani oye wafunga ukusekela uMthetho-sisekelo njengesikhulu sikahulumeni noma sikazwe futhi wangenela ekuvukeleni noma ekuvukeleni i-United States ekuthatheni isikhundla sikahulumeni noma sikahulumeni. Leli lungiselelo lahloselwe ukuba liqondiswe kuziphathimandla ezaziphethe izinhlangano ezihlangene futhi laklanyelwa ukuba zingaphinde zibuyiswe ngokushesha kuhulumeni wangemva kwempi. UHulumeni ungasusa lokhu kukhubazeka ngevoti yombili yezindlu.

Ingxenye yesithathu yathathwa njengengokomlando, ibaluleke kakhulu kuphela esikhathini sangemva kweMpi. Nokho, leli lungiselelo lathola ukunakwa okusha ngemva kwengxoxo engokomthetho ka-January 6, 2021, ku-Capitol yase-U.S., kanye nezinye izazi ezingokomthetho nezikhulu eziphikisayo ngokuthi ingabalulaza abantu abahlanganyela kuleso senzakalo noma abasekela leso senzakalo ekuthatheni isikhundla. Ububanzi obuqondile nokusetshenziswa kwesigaba 3 kuhlala kuyindaba yempikiswano eqhubekayo engokomthetho, kuhlanganise nemibuzo yokuthi ingabe iyazibulala noma idinga inqubo yokugcinwa.

Ingxenye 4: Isikweletu Somphakathi

Ingxenye 4 ikhuluma ngokubaluleka kwesikweletu somphakathi, imemezela ukuthi ukufaneleka kwesikweletu somphakathi wase-United States, kuhlanganise nezikweletu eziye zakhokhelwa ukukhokhwa kwempesheni nenkokhelo yezinkonzo zokuvimbela ukuvukela noma ukuvukela, ngeke kuphenywe. Nokho, isho futhi ukuthi iUnited States noma isiphi isikweleti noma isiphi isibopho noma isibopho esiwehlela ekusizeni ukuvukela noma ukuvukela iUnited States, noma noma noma ukuvuma kokulahlekelwa noma ukulahlekelwa kwabantu abagqilazwayo.

Lengxenye yaqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni kahulumeni uzoba nezikweletu zakhe zeMpi Yombango kuyilapho elahla izikweletu zezentengo zezentengo futhi evimbela ababephethe izigebengu ukuba bafune isinxephezelo ngokulahlekelwa kwabantu abagqilaziwe. Eminyakeni yamuva, isigwebo sokuqala sengxenye 4, sisho ukuthi ukufaneleka kwesikweleti somphakathi "ngeke kuphendulwe," kukhonjiwe ezimpikiswaneni ezimayelana nezikweletu zikahulumeni, futhi abanye baphikisa ngokuthi ivimbela uMkhandlu ukuba wenqabe ukwenqaba ukukhokha izikweletu kakade.

Isiqephu 5: Amandla okuphoqelela

Ingxenye 5 inikeza iSishaya-mthetho amandla okuphoqelela amalungiselelo eSichibiyelo seshumi nane ngomthetho ofanelekile. Leligunya lokuqinisekisa liye laba isisekelo semithetho eminingi yamalungelo abantu ka-1964, kuhlanganise noMthetho we-Civil Rights ka-1965, i-Voting Rights Act ka-1965, kanye namaMelika anomthetho wobukhubazeko ka-1990. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yabeka imingcele emandleni okuqinisekisa ukugcinwa kwemithetho yomthetho, iphethe ukuthi iSishayamthetho ungawamisa amalungelo njengoba iNkantolo ichaze futhi ayinakwandisa izinga lamalungelo omthetho ngomthetho.

Ukuba Umbombo Wezakhamuzi: Ukuchaza Ukuthi Ubani Ongowakhe

ISifundazwe sikaClausse seSichibiyelo seshumi nane samisa umthetho ocacile, ofanayo wokunquma ukuba yizakhamuzi ezisebenza kulo lonke elase-United States. Ngaphambi kokuba le nkinga ilungiswe, ubuzwe babuwumqondo onzima, imibuso ilawula ukuthi ubani obhekwa njengesakhamuzi. Isinqumo sikaDred Scott sasibangele inkinga engokomthetho ngokuthi amaMelika ase - Afrika angeke abe yizakhamuzi, ngisho noma ayengazalwa ekhululekile ezifundazweni eziwaqaphela njengezakhamuzi.

Ngokuthola ukuthi bonke abantu abazalwe e-United States bayizakhamuzi, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane samukela isimiso se-jus soli, noma "ekugcineni komhlabathi," esinikeza ilungelo lokuba izakhamuzi elisekelwe endaweni yokuzalwa. Lokhu kungafani ne-jus secuwiinins, noma "ilungelo legazi," elinikeza ilungelo lokuba izakhamuzi elisekelwe esabelweni sabazali bomunye. I-United States isebenzisa inhlanganisela yazo zombili izimiso, kodwa ukuba isakhamuzi sakha ngojali kuyindlela eyinhloko yokuthola izakhamuzi.

Inkulumo ethi "othobela igunya layo" ibiyindaba yempikiswano ethile. INkantolo Ephakeme yakhuluma ngalenkulumo ecaleni lase-United States ngo-1898 v. Wong Kim Ark, iphethe ukuthi umntwana ozalelwe e-United States kubazali abafuduki baseShayina wayeyisakhamuzi sase-U.S., ngisho noma abazali bakhe babengakufanelekeli ukuba yizakhamuzi ngaphansi kwemithetho engokwemvelo yokubusa ngentando yeningi. INkantolo yahumusha "ihloniphekile egunyeni lomthetho" ngokuncane, ikhipha izingane zamazwe angaphandle namasosha ayisitha, hhayi izingane zabafuduki abavamile.

Ukuba umfowenu okhululekile kuye kwaphikiswana ngezinye izikhathi, abanye bethi akufanele kusebenze kubantwana abavela kwamanye amazwe noma abavakashi besikhashana. Nokho, umbhalo womthetho-sisekelo neNkantolo Ephakeme kusekela kakhulu ukuchazwa okukhulu kwendabuko yobuzibulo. Noma isiphi isici esishintshela kulesi simiso singadinga ukushintshwa komthetho-sisekelo, njengoba ulimi lweSichibiyelo seshumi Nesine lucacile futhi lulokhu luchazwa isikhathi esingaphezu kwekhulu leminyaka.

Inqubo Efanele: Isivikelo Seprocedual Nesezicathulo

I-Gast Procession Claus e-Auth Clausle iye yaba elinye lamalungiselelo abaluleke kakhulu nabanzi eSichibiyelweni seshumi nane, ivikela abantu ngabanye ekuthatheni isinyathelo sikahulumeni sokuzithandela nasekulondolozeni amalungelo ayisisekelo. Umqondo wenqubo ofanele usekelwe kakhulu esikweni lomthetho wamaNgisi namaMelika, ulandelela esithembisweni sikaMagna Carta sokuthi akukho muntu okhululekile oyophucwa inkululeko ngaphandle kokwahlulela okungokomthetho kontanga yakhe noma umthetho wezwe.

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanelekile yokuhlela idinga ukuba uhulumeni alandele izinqubo ezilungile ngaphambi kokuba anciphe umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Izinqubo ezithile ezidingekayo zixhomeke ekutheni inzalo esesigxotsheni noma ingozi yokuncishwa okungamanga.

Ezicabeni zobugebengu, inqubo efanelekile idinga isivikelo esikhulu, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokunikeza iseluleko, ilungelo lokubhekana nofakazi, ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala, nemfuneko yokuba uhulumeni abonise icala ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo. Lezi zivikelo zibonisa ubungako bokuncishwa kwenkululeko noma ngisho nokuphila (*) kanye nesidingo sokunciphisa ingozi yokukholisa ngokungafanele.

Inqubo efanelekile engokwesiko iyasebenza futhi emongweni wesizwe, njengalapho uhulumeni ufuna ukuqeda amalungelo abazali, ukuthatha ilayisense yochwepheshe, noma ukuthatha impahla. Izinqubo ezidingekayo kulemikhakha zingase zingabi zikhulu kakhulu kunasezicabeni zobugebengu, kodwa uhulumeni kumelwe anikeze isaziso esinengqondo nethuba lokuzwakala. Ngisho nabafundi ababhekene nokuxoshwa esikoleni somphakathi banelungelo lohlobo oluthile lwenqubo efanele, nakuba izinqubo zingaba ngokwethukela.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Inqubo efanelekile eyisici iphikisana kakhulu kunenqubo efanelekile yokulungisa ngoba ihilela izinkantolo eziveza amalungelo ayisisekelo angashiwonga ngokuqondile kuMthetho-sisekelo. Inkolelo esekela inqubo efanelekile engaphansi kwe-consitive isho ukuthi amalungelo athile abaluleke kakhulu ekukhululekeni kangangokuba uhulumeni akanakuwagxambukela, ngisho nangezinqubo ezilungile. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi inqubo efanelekile engokomthetho yenza abahluleli basebenzise izindinganiso zabo siqu ngaphansi kwencazelo engokomthetho-mthetho, kuyilapho abasekeli bephikisa ngokuthi kudingekile ukuvikela amalungelo abalulekile angenakubonwa abafuyile abasebenzi bezakhiwo.

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela amalungelo ayisisekelo ahlukahlukene ngaphansi kwenqubo efanelekile engaphansi kwenqubo eyisisekelo, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokushada, ilungelo lokuba nabantwana, ilungelo lokuqondisa imfundo nokukhuliswa kwezingane zomuntu, ilungelo lobuqotho bomzimba, nelungelo lokwenqaba ukwelashwa okungafunwa. INkantolo iye yaqaphela futhi ilungelo elivamile lokuvikela amalungelo okuzala, nakuba izinga lamalungelo liye labekwa empikiswaneni enkulu nenguquko.

Uma umthetho uphula ilungelo eliyisisekelo elivikelwe yinqubo edingayo eyisisekelo, izinkantolo zisebenzisa "ukuhlola imingcele," izinga elifuna kakhulu lokuhlola kokwahlulela. Ngaphansi kokuhlolisisa okuqinile, uhulumeni kumelwe abonise ukuthi umthetho ufeza isithakazelo sikahulumeni esishukumisayo futhi uhloselwe ukufinyelela lesosithakazelo. Lena indinganiso enzima ukuhlangabezana nayo, futhi eminingi imithetho ehlolwa ngokunembe kakhulu iyahla.

Imithetho engangeni emalungelweni ayisisekelo, izinkantolo zisebenzisa "isisekelo esiyisisekelo," esihlonipheke kakhulu kuhulumeni. Ngaphansi kokubukezwa okunengqondo, umthetho uzosekelwa uma uhlobene nengqondo nesithakazelo esingokomthetho sikahulumeni. Lendinganiso ilula ukusuthiswa, futhi imithetho eminingi ebukezwe ngokucubungula okunengqondo iyasekelwa.

Isivikelo Esilinganayo: Isisekelo SoMthetho Wamalungelo Omphakathi

I - Act Evention Claus ichazwa njengefa elibaluleke kakhulu leSichibiyelo seshumi nane, esisebenza njengesisekelo somthetho - sisekelo sokubekela ubandlululo inselele nokuthuthukisa ukulingana. Inkulumo idinga ukuthi inikeza isivikelo esifanayo semithetho kubo bonke abantu abasebusweni babo, okusho ukuthi uhulumeni akanakubaphatha ngendlela efanayo abantu abasendaweni ehlukile ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa okwanele.

Izinga Lokuhlola Ngokuhlola Okulinganayo

Izinkantolo ziye zasungula uhlaka oluyindida lokuhlaziya izivikelo ezifanayo, izinga lokuhlola kuye ngohlobo lohlelo olusetshenziswayo namalungelo athintekayo.

Ukuhlola kusebenza emithethweni ehlukanisa abantu ngokwezinhlanga, imvelaphi yobuzwe, noma ukuphambuka, kanye nemithetho ethwesa umthwalo wamalungelo ayisisekelo. Ngaphansi kokuhlolisisa okuqinile, uhulumeni kumelwe abonise ukuthi ukuhlelwa kwezindawo kufeza isithakazelo sikahulumeni futhi kulungiselelwe ukufinyelela lesosithakazelo. Imibono yezinhlanga ibhekwa ngokusolwa okukhulu ngenxa yomlando wobandlululo lwezinhlanga eUnited States kanye nendima yeSiphendulo se 14 ekusingatheni kuleso sizathu.

Ukuhlola okungathi shubisiwe kusebenza ekuhleleni okusekelwe ebulilini noma ekuzalweni ngokomthetho. Ngaphansi kokuhlola okuphakathi, uhulumeni kumelwe abonise ukuthi ukuhlelwa kwemali kufeza isithakazelo esibalulekile sikahulumeni futhi kuhlobene kakhulu nokufinyelela lesosithakazelo. Lendinganiso ayibekezeleli kakhulu kunokuhlola okuqinile kodwa iqine kakhulu kunesisekelo esinengqondo. INkantolo Ephakeme yaqala ukusebenzisa ukuhlola phakathi nohlelo olusekelwe ebulilini kuma-1970, iqaphela ukuthi nakuba ukucwasa ngokobulili bekungabanga yisisulu esiyinhloko seSichibiyelo se - Inguquko seshumi Nesine, ukucwasana okucwasana kukhuliswe imibandela engathi sína engokomthetho.

Isisekelo sesisekelo se-Ronational [ sisebenza kuzo zonke ezinye izigaba, kuhlanganise nalezo ezisekelwe ebudalani, ekukhubazekeni, engcebweni, noma ezithakazelweni zezomnotho. Ngaphansi kwesisekelo esinengqondo, uhulumeni udinga ukubonisa kuphela ukuthi ukuhlelwa kuhlobene ngokunengqondo nesithakazelo esingokomthetho sikahulumeni. Lokhu kuyindinganiso ehloniphekile kakhulu, futhi izinkantolo ziyosekela umthetho uma zingaqonda isizathu esinengqondo sokwahlulwa, ngisho noma leso sizathu sasingashosho ukuthi umthetho uhlosiwe.

Icala Eliyisivikelo Elilinganayo Eliphawulekayo

I-Umeal Protection Claus ibilokhu iyinhloko yezinqumo eziningi zeNkantolo Ephakeme kakhulu emlandweni waseMelika. KuBrown v. Board of Education (1954), iNkantolo yathi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwakuphula iSivikelo sika-Ecult Claus, kudlula kakhulu "ehlukene kodwa elingana" imfundiso esungulwe kuPlesty v. Ferguson (1896). Isinqumo sikaBrown saqaphela ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa kwangaphandle kwanikeza umyalezo wokuzingabalulekile futhi unqandwa abantwana base-Afrika abenza amathuba alinganayo okufunda, ngisho noma izakhiwo zemvelo zilingana ngokulinganayo.

Ku-Loving v. Virginia (1967), iNkantolo Ephakeme yashaya imithetho enqabela ukushada ngokwezinhlanga, ithi imithetho enjalo yaphula kokubili i-Acime Ecliture Protection Claus ne-Curtive Claus. INkantolo yalahla impikiswano kaVirginia yokuthi umthetho wawuwumthetho womthetho ngoba wawusebenza ngokulinganayo kuzo zonke izinhlanga, iqaphela ukuthi umthetho wawuklanyelwe ukulondoloza ukuphakama kwabamhlophe futhi wawungenanjongo esemthethweni.

I-Umeal Protection Claus ibuye isetshenziswe ekubekeni inselele ukucwaswa ngokobulili. E-United States v. Virginia (1996), iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi ukuhlukanisa kukaVirginia abesifazane eVirginia Military Institute kwaphula i-Uncial Protection Claus. INkantolo yathola ukuthi iVirginia yayingabonisanga "ukuthethelela ngokukholisayo" ukuhlelwa kwemibono esekelwe ebulilini nokuthi izimpikiswano zikahulumeni zazisekelwe emikhubeni ephelelwe isikhathi ngokuphathelene namakhono abesifazane.

Muva nje, i-Uncimence Protection Clausle iye yasetshenziswa ezicaleni ezihilela indlela yobulili nesithombe sobulili. E-Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi imibhangqwana engokobulili obufanayo inelungelo lokushada ngomthetho ngokomthetho ofanayo, incike kokubili e-Cecle Procession Clause ne-Momement Protection Claus. INkanto ethola ukuthi ukuphika imibhangqwana efanayo engobulilini ilungelo lokushada ngokwephula ilungelo layo eliyisisekelo lokushada futhi iyenza incikelwe ngokungafani ngokusekelwe engosini.

Ukuhlolwa: Ukusebenzisa Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Kahulumeni

Enye yentuthuko ebaluleke kakhulu eSichibiyelweni seSichibiyelo seshumi nane ukuhlanganisa ingxenye enkulu yeSiphakamiso samaLungelo sokusebenzisa kuhulumeni wombuso. ISigqi seMini seMibuso yamaLungelo, esihlanganisa izinguquko zokuqala eziyishumi kuMthetho-sisekelo, ekuqaleni sasiqondwa njengomngcele kuphela kahulumeni, hhayi ohulumeni bezwe. Lokhu kwakusho ukuthi, ngokwenkolelo, ukusungula izinkolo ezingokomthetho, ukwenza ukuphenya okungenangqondo nokuquleka, noma ukuphika ukuqulwa kwejaji ngaphandle kokuphula uMthetho-sisekelo.

Imfundiso ehlanganisiwe ithi i-The I Procession Claus yeSichibiyelo se-14th yenza ukuba eziningi zezivikelo zeSiphakamiso samaLungelo zisebenze ezizweni. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yahlanganisa amalungelo ngokukhethayo ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, ihlola ukuthi ilungelo ngalinye "lisekelwe eqhingani lethu lenkululeko egunyaziwe" noma" lisekelwe ngokujulile emlandweni nakumasiko esizwe." Kulenqubo, iNkantolo iye yahlanganisa cishe yonke iBill of Rights, ngaphandle kwedlanzalo, njengelungelo lokuyakhesa amajaji amakhulu futhi ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala enkantolo evuna icala lomphakathi.

Imfundiso ehlanganisiwe iye yandisa ngokuphawulekayo isivikelo somthetho ngokomthetho kahulumeni nokwenyulwa kwemithetho kahulumeni yezimiso zomthetho womthetho kahulumeni. Amalungelo aye ahlanganiswa ahlanganisa inkululeko yokuQhunyushwa kolimi lokuqala, ukusakazwa kwezindaba, inkolo, nenhlangano; iSichibiyelo Sesine sivikela ekuphenyeni nokuquleka okungenangqondo; ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu ekumelaneni nokuzilahla; amalungelo eSichibiyelo seSisithupha elulekweni sokwahlulela, ukuqulwa kwejaji, nokuxabana kofakazi; kanye neSiphendukunganiso Sesi - 8 seSikhalo sonya nesijeziso esingavamile.

Ukuqashelwa kuye kwaphikiswana, abagxeki bephikisa ngokuthi kumelela ukuphambana kwemithetho yomthetho futhi kululaza ukubeka izindinganiso zesizwe ezifanayo ezindaweni ezihlukene. Abaxhasi baphikisa ngokuthi ukuhlanganisa kudingekile ukuze kuvikelwe amalungelo ayisisekelo futhi kuvimbele ukuphulwa kwenkululeko eyisisekelo. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi umuntu unombono oyisisekelo ngemfundiso, ukuhlanganiswa kwemithetho-mthetho-sisekelo yaseMelika kuye kwaba isici esimisiwe, ngokuyisisekelo esiguqula ubuhlobo phakathi kwabantu, ababusi, nohulumeni.

ISinyathelo SikaHulumeni Semfundiso: Isichibiyelo Se - 14 Sisebenza Nini?

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siqala ngenkulumo ethi "Ayikho UHulumeni," ebonisa ukuthi isebenza kuphela esinyatheloni sikahulumeni, hhayi ekuziphatheni kwangasese. Lo mngcele waziwa njengemfundiso yesenzo kahulumeni, futhi kusho ukuthi abantu ngabanye nezinhlangano ngokuvamile ngeke baphule iSichibiyelo seshumi nane, ngisho noma ukuziphatha kwabo bekungeke kuvumelane uma kwenziwa uhulumeni.

Imfuneko kahulumeni ibonisa isimiso somthetho - sisekelo sikahulumeni olinganiselwe nesimiso sokuthi uMthetho - sisekelo ulawula ubuhlobo phakathi kwabantu nombuso, hhayi ubuhlobo phakathi kwamaqembu azimele. Ukucwaswa kwangabodwa, nakuba kungase kube okungekho emthethweni ngaphansi kwemithetho kahulumeni noma yamalungelo omphakathi, akuwephuli umthetho weSichibiyelo seshumi nane ngaphandle kokuba uhulumeni uhileleke ngokwanele ekwenzeni isenzo sombuso.

Nokho, umehluko phakathi kwesenzo sikahulumeni nokuziphatha komuntu siqu awucacile ngaso sonke isikhathi. Izinkantolo ziye zathola isinyathelo sikahulumeni ezimweni ezihlukahlukene lapho abadlali abangabodwa behlangene eduze nohulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, isinyathelo sikahulumeni singatholakala lapho uhulumeni ephoqa noma ekhuthaza ukuziphatha komuntu siqu, lapho abadlali abazimele benza imisebenzi kahulumeni engokwesiko, lapho kunesisithende esikhulu phakathi kukahulumeni nabadlali abazimele, noma lapho uhulumeni enikeza ukusekela okungokwezimali kubathengisi.

Imfundiso yesenzo sikahulumeni iye yagxekwa ngokuvumela ubandlululo lwangasese ukuba luchume ngaphandle kwekhambi lomthetho-sisekelo. Ekuphenduleni kulokhu kukhathazeka, uMkhandlu uye wamisa imithetho ehlukahlukene enqabela ukucwaswa kwamalungelo omphakathi ezindaweni ezinjengomsebenzi, izindlu, nezindawo zomphakathi. Lemithetho igcwalisa ezinye zezikhala ezishiywe yimfuneko yesenzo sombuso, nakuba inganikezi isivikelo esibanzi njengoMthetho-Mpatho ngokwawo.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Ezimpikiswaneni Zomthetho - sisekelo Zanamuhla

IsiHlanzi Se - 14 siyaqhubeka siyinhloko yezimpikiswano eziningi eziphikisana kakhulu zomthetho - sisekelo eMelika yangalesosikhathi.

Isinyathelo Esiqinisayo Nezintandokazi Zobuhlanga

Enye impikiswano eqhubekayo ihilela izinhlelo zomthetho-mthetho zokuvuma ezicabangela ukuthatha isigaba sesigaba eyunivesithi noma ukuthatha uhulumeni. Abaxhasi baphikisa ngokuthi izinhlelo ezinjalo zidingekile ukuze kulungiswe ukucwasana kwangesikhathi esidlule futhi zikhuthaze ukuhlukahlukahluka, kuyilapho abaphikisi bephikisa ukuthi noma yikuphi ukusetshenziswa kohlanga kuphula isithembiso se-Uncility Protection Clausle sokwelapha okulinganayo. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yathi izinhlelo zohlanga ezivunyelwayo zokuvuma ngengqondo kumelwe zanelise ngokucubungula, izincazelo eziqhubekayo zesizathu sokuba basebenzise isithakazelo esiphoqelelekile futhi balungise ingxenyana. Inkantolo iye yaqaphela ukuthi isithakazelo esinezemfundo ephakeme kodwa iye yabeka imingcele ebalulekile ekutheni izinhlanga zingacatshangelwa kanjani. Izinqumo zamuva nje iNkanto ephakeme ziye zalinganisela imingceleni yokusetshenziswa kwezinhlanga ekuvumeni, ibonisa ukungavumelani okuqhubekayo ngokuphathelenezentengo yokuvikela isivikelo kule mongo.

Amalungelo Okuzala Nama - odily Autonommy

Isilinganiso senqubo efanelekile yokuvikela amalungelo okuzala siye saba esinye sezindaba zomthetho-sisekelo ezihlukanisa kakhulu amashumi eminyaka. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme eRoe v. Wade (1973) saqaphela ilungelo elingokomthetho lokukhipha isisu elisekelwe enqubweni ye-Curtive Process Clause, kodwa lesi sinqumo sanqandwa eDobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization (2022), eyayithi uMthetho-sisekelo awulivikeli ilungelo lokukhipha isisu. Isinqumo sikaDobbb siye sabangela ukuba kube nempikiswano enkulu ngendima efanele yenqubo efanelekile, ukufaneleka okungalawuleki, kanye nobuhlobo phakathi komthetho womthetho wezomthetho kanye nokwenza isinqumo sentando yentando yeningi.

Amalungelo E - LGBTQ Nesivikelo Esilinganayo

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siye safeza indima enkulu ekunyuseni kwesivikelo esingokomthetho kubantu ngabanye. Ngaphandle kokuqashelwa komshado ongokobulili obufanayo e-Obergefell, izinkantolo ziye zacabangela ukuthi ubandlululo olusekelwe ekufuneni ubulili noma ubulili luye lwabangela ukuqashelwa kakhulu ngaphansi kwe-Ecult Protection Clausle. Nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme ingakawuxazululi ngokuqiniseka lombuzo, izinkantolo eziphansi ziye zaqaphela kakhulu ukuthi ubandlululo olunjalo luphakamisa izimpikiswano ezingathi sína zomthetho-mfashini. Izimpikiswano ziyaqhubeka ngezindaba ezinjengokukhulula amalungelo enkolo emithetho elwa nomthetho elwa nomthetho onqanda ukuhlukana kwe-discractin, kanye nezinganiso zesivikelo somthetho-LBTQ.

Ukuphana Ngamalungelo Nobuqotho Obuqotho

Nakuba ilungelo lokuvota lingaqiniseki ngokucacile eMthethweni woMyalweni wokuqala, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yasekela ukuthi i-Univile Protection Claus ivikela ilungelo lokuvota futhi ifuna ukuba amavoti anikwe isilinganiso esifanayo. Isimiso sika "umuntu oyedwa, ivoti" sidinga ukuba izifunda-zomthetho zidonswe abantu abalinganayo, ziqinisekise ukuthi ukuvota komuntu ngamunye kuthwala isilinganiso esifanayo sobukhulu. Nokho, izimpikiswano ziyaqhubeka ezindabeni ezinjengezimfuneko zokuvota, imingcele yokuvota nokuvota kwakudala, i-fenfranchizementment, ne-gerrymanting . Lezizingxoxo zivame ukuhlanganisa iziqinisekiso zeSiphaka-Genethth sticelot zesivikelo nenqubo efanelekile.

Ukufuduka Nokuzalwa Ngokufanelekile

Isiqinisekiso sika-Claus se-sakhamuzi sobuzibulo siye sangatshazwa ngabanye abaphikisa ngokuthi akufanele sisebenze kubantwana abafuduki abangashiwongo ukuthi bayabuya. Nokho, umbhalo wenguquko nesibonelo seNkantolo Ephakeme esinesikhathi eside ikhona usekela incazelo ebanzi yobuzibulo. Noma isiphi inguquko kulesi simiso singabhekana nezithiyo ezingokomthetho-mthetho futhi singamelela ukwehla okuphawulekayo okusukela esikhathini esingaphezu kwekhulu somthetho omisiwe.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Namalungelo Ezomnotho

Ngasekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi namashumi amabili nangasekupheleni kwekhulu lamashumi amabili, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasebenzisa i-The Bit Programme Clause ukuze ivikele inkululeko engokomnotho futhi ishaye imithetho elawula ibhizinisi, umsebenzi, kanye nobudlelwane obungokomnotho. Lenkathi, eyaziwa ngokuthi inkathi yeLochner (ebizwa ngemva kwecala lika-19905 Lochner v. New York), yabona iNkantolo iphelelwa imingcele yeholo elilinganiselwe, imithetho yamahora aphakeme, nezinye izimiso zezomnotho emhlabeni lapho bephula khona inkululeko evikelwe yi-Octal Classiasce.

Inkathi yeLochner yaphela ngawo - 1930, njengoba iNkantolo yaqala ukulalela izahlulelo zemithetho ngokuphathelene nesimiso sezomnotho futhi yalahla umqondo wokuthi iMkhiqizo kaClaus weSimemezelo uvikela ilungelo elibanzi lenkululeko engokomnotho. Kusukela ngalesosikhathi, iNkantolo iye yasebenzisa isisekelo esinengqondo sokubukeza imithetho engokomnotho, isekela cishe yonke imithetho enjalo uma nje ihlobene ngokunengqondo nesithakazelo esingokomthetho sikahulumeni.

Ezinye izazi namajaji ziye zacela ukuba kuvuselelwe ukuvikelwa komthetho ngokomthetho okuqinile ngokomthetho ngenxa yamalungelo ezomnotho, ziphikisa ngokuthi amalungelo empahla nenkululeko yezomnotho kungamalungelo ayisisekelo afanelwe isivikelo sokwahlulela esinengqondo. Nokho, lombono awukatholakali eNkantolo Ephakeme, eqhubeka isebenzisa isisekelo esinengqondo sokubukeza imithetho engokomnotho. Impikiswano ngokuphathelene namalungelo ezomnotho iveza ukungavumelani okukhulu ngendima efanele yezinkantolo ekuhloleni izinqumo zemithetho kanye nokuvikelwa komthetho wenkululeko ehlukahlukene.

Ukugxekwa Nokulinganiselwa KweSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Naphezu kwethonya laso lokuguqula, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane siye sagxekwa ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene futhi sinemingcele ebalulekile. Abanye abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lolu shintsho luye lwachazwa kabanzi, luvumela izinkantolo ukuba zifake izinqumo zazo ezithandwayo ngaphansi kwencazelo engokomthetho. Laba bagxeki bakhomba inqubo efanelekile edingayo njengenkinga ngokukhethekile, bephikisa ngokuthi ayinasisekelo esicacile sombhalo futhi inikeza abahluleli ukuhlakanipha okukhulu.

Abanye abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ushintsho aluchazwanga lubanzi ngokwanele nokuthi izinkantolo ziye zahluleka ukufeza isithembiso sokulingana. Laba bagxeki baveza imfundiso yesenzo sikahulumeni njengomngcele obalulekile, bethi ivumela ukucwaswa kwangasese ukuba kuchume ngaphandle kwekhambi lomthetho-sisekelo. Baphikisa futhi ngokuthi incazelo elinganiselwe yeNkantolo yamalungelo noma u-Immony Claus ivile ukuba ifeze injongo yayo yokuvikela amalungelo ayisisekelo.

Ukugcinwa kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane nakho bekungalingani kuwo wonke umlando. Ngasekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi elinesine nasekuqaleni kwamashumi amabili, iNkantolo Ephakeme yachaza ukulungiswa ngokulinganiselwe, ivumela amazwe ukuba asebenzise uJim Crow ukwahlukana futhi aphike amalungelo abantu base-Afrika ngokuhleleka. Kwakungaze kube ngekhulu lamaphakathi leminyaka eliphakathi lapho iNkantolo iqala ukuphoqelela ukulunga kokulungisa isilinganiso iqinisekisa ngamandla amakhulu. Lomlando ubonisa ukuthi umbhalo wemithetho-mthetho wodwa awuwanele ukuqinisekisa amalungelo; ukugcinwa kuxhomeke emongweni yezombangazwe nezenhlalo nasemthethweni waseMelika kanye nezimiso zokuzimisela ukuthatha izivumelwano ezingokomthetho.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Siqhathaniswa Nomthetho Wamalungelo Abantu Emhlabeni Wonke

Izimiso ezihlanganiswe eSichibiyelweni seshumi nane (16), inqubo efanele, nesivikelo esifanayo, ziyafana nomthetho wezizwe zonke wamalungelo abantu. ISimemezelo somhlaba wonke samalungelo abantu, esamukelwa yiZizwe Ezihlangene ngo-1948, siqaphela ilungelo lobuzwe, ilungelo lokulingana phambi komthetho, nelungelo lenqubo efanelekile. Imithetho-sisekelo eminingi yomhlaba emhlabeni wonke ihlanganisa isivikelo esifanayo, okubonisa ukuvumelana kwembulunga yonke ngamalungelo abantu ayisisekelo.

Nokho, kunomehluko omkhulu phakathi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane nomthetho wamalungelo abantu wezizwe zonke. ISichibiyelo seshumi nane sisebenza kuphela ekuthatheni isinyathelo sikahulumeni, kanti umthetho wamalungelo abantu wezizwe zonke ungabeka izibopho kubo bobabili ohulumeni nakubadlali babantu. Ngaphezu kwalokho, umthetho wamalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke uvame ukuqaphela amalungelo awusizo, njengamalungelo emfundo, ukunakekelwa kwempilo, noma indawo yokuhlala, kuyilapho iSichibiyelo seMinyaka Engamashumi Amane seSine siye sachazwa ngokwesiko ukuvikela amalungelo amabi kuphela ngokuphazazanywa kukahulumeni kunokuba kuthathwe amalungelo elungiselelo likahulumeni ezinkonzo.

Umthetho - sisekelo oqhathanisayo unganikeza ukuqonda okuwusizo ngendlela amanye amazwe asingatha ngayo izindaba ezifanayo zezakhamuzi, ukulingana, nenqubo efanele. Ngokwesibonelo, amazwe amaningi aye alahla ubuzibulo ngenxa yobuhlanga olusekelwe ngokuyinhloko emndenini wozalo, kuyilapho amanye eye athatha isivikelo esibanzi samalungelo ezenhlalo nawezomnotho kunokuba kube khona ngaphansi komthetho ngokomthetho wase-U.S. ukutadisha lezizindlela ezihlukene kunganikeza izimpikiswano ngokuchaza nokusetshenziswa kweSiphenduko seshumi nane.

Indlela Izakhamuzi Ezingahlanganyela Ngayo NeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Ukuqonda iSichibiyelo seshumi nane akuyona nje indlela yemfundo kuphela, kodwa kubalulekile ukuze kube nesibopho sobuzwe nokuthembisana komphakathi.

Landela izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme nezenzakalo zomthetho ezihlobene neSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Izinhlangano eziningi zinikeza ukufushaniswa okufinyelelweyo kwamacala abalulekile nezimpikiswano zomthetho-sisekelo. Ukuqonda indlela ukulungiswa okuchazwa futhi kusetshenziswe ngayo kungakusiza ukuba uhlanganyele ngokuphumelelayo ezingxabanweni zentando yeningi ngokuphathelene namalungelo nokulingana.