Imvelaphi Nezimiso Zokuzivikela Okukabili Komshoshaphansi

Ingozi ephindwe kabili iyisisekelo senqubo yobugebengu e-United States kanye nezinye iziphakamiso zemithetho ezivamile. Isimiso senqabela uhulumeni ukuba amangalele umuntu kaningi ngenxa yecala elifanayo ngemva kokulahlwa noma ukuqiniseka okungokomthetho. Lokhu kuvikelwa kusekelwe eSichibiyelweni sesihlanu se-U.S., esithi: "Akekho umuntu ozobekwa icala elifanayo ukuze abekwe engozini yokuphila noma isitho." Imfundiso ifeza izinjongo eziningi: ivikela ukugcinwa kokugcina kwezahlulelo, ivikela abantu ekuhlushweni okuphindaphindwayo, ivimbela uhulumeni ekusebenziseni imithombo yawo emikhulu ukuze agqoke ummangalelwa, futhi iqinisekisa ukuthi umbuso awunakukwazi ukuphindela icala kuze kube yilapho uthola ukukholeka.

Umqondo wengozi ephindwe kabili uvela mandulo, othathelwa umthetho wamaRoma futhi kamuva owenziwe eNgilandi. Abahlaziyi bezomthetho abangamaNgisi abanjengoSir William Blackstone bacacisa isimiso ekhulwini le-18, begcizelela ukuthi umuntu akumelwe abekwe kabili icala elifanayo. Abahleli be-U.S. uMthetho-sisekelo wafaka lesivikelo ku-Bill of Rights njengendlela yokuhlola umshushisi. Namuhla, isivikelo asisebenzi kuhulumeni wombuso kuphela kodwa futhi nasezimisweni zenqubo ye-Gajikijelo ye-145, njengoba kuphethwe yiNkanto ePhakakhulu e [FL:0]. Mary v[FLD] [FLT] [12:1].[1969]

Lapho I - jeopard Enamathelisa: Amaphuzu Ashukumisayo

Ukuqonda izingozi ezimbili kudinga ukwazi ukuthi isivikelo sihlangana nini ngempela, okusho ukuthi, uma ummangalelwa ebekwe ngokomthetho engozini. Ecaleni lejaji, izingozi zifakwa lapho ijaji lifungele futhi libekwa endaweni ethile. Ecaleni lebhentshi (emacaleni ngaphandle kwejaji), izingozi uma ufakazi wokuqala efumbekwa. Uma icala liphela ngaphambi kwalamaphuzu, isivikelo asikaqali. Ukunxusa okunecala, ukufakwa engozini kuhambisana nokwamukelwa kwesicelo. Lemithetho iyagxeka ngoba isikhathi sinquma ukuthi inkantolo iyavinjelwa.

Ngokwesibonelo, uma ummangalelwa emangalelwa kodwa icala lingaqalwanga ngokuxoshwa ngaphandle kobandlululo, uhulumeni angaphinde akhiphe icala. Nokho, uma usongo seluhlangene kakade futhi icala liphumela ekulahlweni, akukho kudluliswa noma ukuqulwa kwecala okuvunyelwe (nangoba ukulahlwa kusekelwe ephutheni elisobala elingokomthetho lomahluleli. INkantolo Ephakeme ibambelele njalo ukuthi abaxokisi bayagcina, njengoba kushiwo ku United States v. Scott) nezinye izinqumo.

Isihluthulelo Esiyingqayizivele Nokulinganiselwa Ezigebengwini Zezigebengu

Nakuba ingozi ephindwe kabili inikeza isivikelo esiqinile, izimpawu eziningana eziqashelwayo zivumela uhulumeni ukuba avumele ummangalelwa ukuba aphinde alwe noma aphishekele ukuqulwa okuhlukile.

Izimo Ezingalungile Nezibonakala Zibalulekile

Icala elingalungile liqulwa lapho icala liphela kungakabikho sinqumo ngenxa yejaji elibolelwe ngecala elifile, iphutha le-United States, noma ezinye izimo ezingavamile. Ezimweni ezinjalo, izingozi eziphindwe kabili aziwavaleli amajaji − i-projects(inikeza izinqumo ezingalungile"ukubekwa "ukungadingekile". Indinganiso eqalwe enqubeni ye-19 United States v. [1824], lapho iNkanto ephakeme yayikholelwa ukuthi ijaji elengayo (engenakufinyelela isahlulelo esihlangene) ithethelela ngokungafanele nokuqulwa okusha. Ezinye izimo zingahlanganisa ukugula komahluleli noma ujuqu, noma ukungalungi okungenakuphulukiswa. Nokho, uma inkantolo ingenza inzuzo esemthethweni iphumelele, kungase kube inzuzo yesibili.

Ukukhanga Namakhambi Ngemva Kokuqiniseka

Uma ummangalelwa elahlwa futhi ephumelela ekudluliseleni isiqinisekiso, izingozi eziphindwe kabili ngokuvamile aziwuvimbeli uhulumeni ekulungiseni icala. Isizathu siwukuthi ummangalelwa walahla ilungelo lokugcina ngokubekela isiqinisekiso inselele. Lesi simiso, esaziwa ngokuthi "ukuphikelela kwengozi" imfundiso, sivumela umbuso ukuba ufune ukukholisa ngemva kokubuyisela icala. Nokho, uma inkantolo ephethe ithola ukuthi ubufakazi abunele ukusekela isiqinisekiso, igwetshwa futhi ngenxa yokuthi ukuthola ubufakazi obunganele kuyalingana nokulahlwa. Lokhu kwasungulwa [[FLT:] ku-BURC] [[FLT] v [FL:1] [12] [12] [F:]

Imfundiso Yobukhosi Obubodwa

Enye yezinqumo eziphikisana kakhulu nezingozi eziphindwe kabili yi- "amakhosi ahlukene" noma "umbuso owehlukile" imfundiso. Ngaphansi kwalesi simiso, umuntu angamangalelwa ngokuziphatha okufanayo okuyisisekelo kokubili ngohulumeni wombuso nohulumeni ngoba bezimele abahlukene. Inkosi ngayinye inemithetho yayo siqu nezithakazelo. Ngokwesibonelo, uma umuntu ephanga okuphula umthetho wezwe nombuso (umz., ukuphanga ibhange elikhohlisiwe ngokwemithetho engokomthetho), zombili izikhulu zingaletha ukumangalela okuhlukene ngaphandle kokwephula izingozi eziphindwe kabili. Ngokufanayo, izigaba eziningi zingamangalelwa uma isenzo esifanayo siphucwa yimithetho yombuso.

Imfundiso ehlangene yobukhosi iye yasekelwa ngokuphindaphindiwe yiNkantolo Ephakeme, ngokuphawulekayo kakhulu [ku- Ggudge v. United States (2029), lapho iNkantolo yaqinisekisa khona umthetho ngokumelene nenselele yomthetho-sisekelo. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi le mfundiso ilulaza injongo eyisisekelo yokuzibeka kabili ngokuvumela izijeziso eziningi ngesenzo esifanayo. Abaxhasi baphikisa ngokuthi ihlonipha izithakazelo ezihlukile zohulumeni nomthetho wombuso.

Kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuthi lemfundiso ayisebenzi uma umbusi oyedwa eyi "ithuluzi" yomunye. Uma umshushisi kahulumeni eyi-system ukuvumela inkantolo kahulumeni, izinkantolo zingavimbela eyesibili ukuba iqhubeke ngaphansi "kwengozi ephindwe kabili" ngokwayo.

Ukuchayeka Okukabili Emacalani Angaphakathi: Ukubukeka Okuhlukile

Izingozi eziphindwe kabili zisebenza kuphela emacaleni obugebengu, hhayi emacaleni omphakathi. IsiHlanzi seSichibiyelo sesihlanu sibhekisela ngokucacile "engonakalisa ukuphila noma isitho," inkulumo ehlobene ngokomlando nesijeziso sobugebengu njengokufa noma ukuboshwa. Amacala ombango, ahilela izimpikiswano ngempahla, izivumelwano, noma amaphutha phakathi kwamaqembu azimele, awavikeleki isivikelo esifanayo. Ngakho, umuntu angagwenywa kaningi ngenxa yesenzakalo esifanayo, nakuba izimiso ezifana ne-padicata (i-padclusion) kanye ne-evalebral es espal ehpel (istriclue) ngokuvamile zivimbela ukuvikelwa kwezicelo ezifanayo noma izimpikiswano ezinkantolo zomphakathi.

Nokho, umehluko phakathi komphakathi nobugebengu ungafiphaza lapho uhulumeni efuna lokho okujezisayo ngokuphumelelayo [ngezehlakalo zomphakathi. Ngokwesibonelo, ukulahlekelwa [ uvumela uhulumeni ukuba athathe impahla ehlangene nobugebengu ngaphandle kokumangalela umniniyo ngobugebengu. Kungokomlando, iNkantolo Ephakeme ebekwe e [FLT] [[FLT]] [eUnited States v. Eyodwa ye- 89 ye-Firectives [19984] [ukulahlekelwa komphakathi] ukuthi ukulahlekelwa akusona isijeziso ngenxa yezinjongo eziphindwe kabili. Kodwa ezikakhulu, iNkantolo iqaphele ukuthi ezinye izijeziso zezakhamuzi zingaba isijeziso, ukubangela ukulahlekelwa okuphindizelayo. [FT] [FT] [5] [5]

Imisebenzi yomphakathi imelene nobugebengu

Izinhlobo ezimbili zokulahlekelwa kukhona: ukulahlekelwa ubugebengu, okuyingxenye yesigwebo sobugebengu, nokulahlwa kwemithetho, okuyinto ethatha isinyathelo sokulwa nempahla ngokwayo. Ngoba ukulahlekelwa kwesizwe kubhekwa njengokuqhubeka kwezembulo, ukulahlekelwa kabili akuyithinti ukumangalelwa kwecala ngokulandela ukulahlekelwa uhulumeni, noma ngokuphambene. Nokho, uma uhulumeni eqala ukulahlekelwa uhulumeni futhi emangalelwa ngomthetho, izinkantolo zingahlola ukuthi isijeziso somphakathi singu "Isijeziso" yini. v. United States u-Ursery[FLT:] [196], iNkantolo Ephakeme eyayikholelwa ukuthi ukulahlekelwa yizakhamuzi ngokuvamile akukona ukujeziswa ngengozi ephindwe kabili, kodwa kungashiya isigwebo sivulekile ngenxa yecala elikhohlisiwe.

Ukuqhubeka Okuhambisana Nengozi Yokushaywa Ngokweqile

Uma kusetshenziswa inqubo, uhulumeni uvame ukwenza uphenyo olufana nolwezembukuqulwano. Ngokwesibonelo, ukukhwabanisa ngezigwegwe kungaholela kokubili ekuphoqeleleni kwezenzuzo ze-SEC nomthetho we- Justice Department. Ummangalelwa akanakusho ukuthi usengozini ephindwe kabili yokuvimbela isambatho secala sesizwe ngenxa nje yokuthi icala lesela lisekhona noma lixazululiwe. Umehluko oyinhloko ukuthi amakhambi omphakathi alungiswa ngokwesiko (umzz., ukususwa kwezinzuzo, izinkombaza eziklanyelwe ukukhokha ezikhokhelwa ukukhokhwa) kunokuba akhiphe isijeziso. Nokho, lapho isijeziso somphakathi siba yize kakhulu noma inselele, inselele eyingozi ephindwe kabili ingaphumelela, nakuba izinselele ezinjalo zingavamile ukuba ziphumelele.

Imibono Yomhlaba Wonke Ngemiqondo Embaxa - mbili

Isimiso sengozi ephindwe kabili, esaziwa ngokuthi amabine ezinkolelweni eziningi zomthetho womphakathi, siqashelwa emhlabeni wonke, nakuba ubukhulu nokwehluka. ECanada, iCate 11(h) yeSiphakamiso samalungelo nenkululeko saseCanada inikeza isivikelo esifanayo. ICanada futhi isebenzisa "umthetho omelene nezinkolelo eziningi" kodwa ayilandeli imfundiso embaxa-mbili yobukhosi ngokwezinga elifanayo ne-U.S. Umuntu ohliswe ubugebengu eCanada akanakubekwa esifundeni esihlukile ngoba izinkantolo zaseCanada ziphatha zonke izifundazwe njengengxenye yombusi oyedwa.

EUnited Kingdom, lesi simiso sasiyisimiso esiqinile ngenxa yobugebengu obukhulu, kodwa uMthetho we-Criminal Justice 2003 wasungula ukungakhethi kwezomthetho ezithile ezingathi sína (umzk., ukubulala, ukudlwengula) uma "kusha futhi kugunyaza" kuvela ubufakazi. Lokhu kwabangelwa yimacala aphezulu aveza abantu abakhululwe ngecala kamuva abavuma icala, bebangela ukukhala komphakathi. Ngokufanayo, i-Australia ilandela umthetho ovamile kodwa ivumela ukuqulwa kwecala "ukuvala amaphutha" (umz., amakhalo atholwa ngokufaka ubufakazi).

Ku-European Union, i-Charter of Fundament Rights ne-European Convention on Human Rights (Protocol 7, ISiphakamiso 4) iqinisekisa ilungelo lokungaqulwa kabili ngenxa yobugebengu obufanayo. INkantolo yoMahlulelo yaseYurophu iye yachaza lokhu "kushaya umthetho owenziwe ngokungenamthetho", okuvimbela ukulandelana kwezenzakalo eziqhubekayo esizweni esifanayo samalungu nakwamanye amazwe ngenxa yamaqiniso afanayo. Nokho, ngaphandle kwalokho, kukhona izijeziso zokuphatha ezingekhona ubugebengu.

Lemithetho exubile iqokomisa ukuthi ingozi ephindwe kabili ayilona ilungelo eliphelele kodwa iyisimiso izinhlangano ezilinganiselayo ngokumelene nesidingo sobulungisa nokugcina.

Izimpikiswano Nezimpikiswano Zemithetho

Ingozi ephindwe kabili isalokhu iyinto yempikiswano enkulu phakathi kwezazi zomthetho, odokotela, nezishayamthetho. Impikiswano evelele kakhulu yimfundiso ehlangene yobukhosi. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ifaka isivikelo ngokuvumela ukuqulwa kwezigwebo okuphindwe kabili kobugebengu obufanayo, ukujezisa ngokuphumelelayo othile kabili. Bakhomba amacala anjengokuvalwa kwezikhulu zenkantolo esemthethweni elandelwa ukumangalelwa kwamalungelo abantu (umzk., iNdoda enguRodney King) njengezibonelo lapho ubukhosi obumbaxanxantathu bungakhonza khona ubulungisa, kodwa futhi futhi nakwezozindawo lapho kubonakala sengathi bucindezela khona. Amanye amazwe adlulise imithetho ekhipha izikhalo ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezilandela ukuvinjelwa okungokomthetho ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo, kodwa lemithetho ilinganiselwe ngoba umthetho awudingi ukuvinjelwa.

Enye indawo yempikiswano ihlanganisa indima yobufakazi obusha. Ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni wamanje, ubufakazi obusanda kutholwa abuvumi ukuqulwa ngemva kokulahlwa. Abanye abasekeli baye basikisela ukuba ubufakazi be-DNA bungadluli emacaleni okudlwengulwa noma ekuvumeni izono okucacile, okufana nezinguquko ze-UK. Abaphikisi baphikisa ngokuthi ukungakholeki okunjalo kungaqeda ukwethemba izinqumo futhi kumeme abashushisi.

Kukhona futhi ukudingidwa ngokuthi izijeziso zomphakathi njengesijeziso noma isibopho somphakathi (isinye, kubantu abafuna ubudlova bobulili) kufanele zibangele izingozi eziphindwe kabili. iNkantolo Ephakeme ngokuvamile iye yakholelwa ukuthi ukuzibophezela komphakathi akusona isijeziso, kodwa lendaba isalokhu iqashelwa.

Izicelo Ezingokoqobo Zabafundi Nochwepheshe Bezomthetho

Ukuqonda izingozi eziphindwe kabili kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofunda umthetho wobugebengu noma inqubo. Abameli, imfundiso iyithuluzi elibalulekile: uma ikhasimende likhululiwe, leso sinqumo sisokugcina futhi asinakubekelwa inselele. Kubashushisi, kusho ukulungiselela nokuqinisekisa ukuthi wonke amacala alethwa enkantolo eyodwa uma kungenzeka. Ngokungaphandle kwe-"umbuso) ohlukene, ukudunyiswa, nokuncengwa kwecala okungathandeki" kufanele kuqondwe ukugwema amaphutha abalulekile.

Kubaphathi bemithetho, akuvamile ukuba kuvele izigaba ezimbili eziyingozi, kodwa ulwazi lwenqubo ezihambisanayo nokwehluka kwesijeziso esifanayo lubalulekile ekweluleleni amakhasimende abhekene nokuchayeka komphakathi nobugebengu.

Isiphetho: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Njalo Kokuphela

Izingozi ezimbili ziwukuvikela okubucayi ekuxhashazweni nokuphathwa kabi kukahulumeni. Nakuba ukusebenza kwayo kungekhona okungaphelele (ngaphandle kwezindawo ezingafanele, izikhalo, kanye nezingameli ezihlukene) isimiso esiyisisekelo siqinisekisa ukuthi ukulahlwa noma ukuvunyelwa kuletha isiphetho. Umehluko phakathi kwecala nomphakathi uyisisekelo; izingozi eziphindwe kabili azikulinganisi ukubekwa kwecala komphakathi, kodwa ezinye izimfundiso ezifana ne-redicata ne-eteral eslempla imisa izindlela zazo siqu zokugcina.

Njengoba izimiso zomthetho zishintsha, ukulinganisela phakathi kokugcina nokulunga kuyaqhubeka kuvivinywa. Izinguquko kwamanye amazwe zibonisa ukuthi imiphakathi ingakhipha umehluko olinganiselwe ngaphandle kokulahla isimiso ngokuphelele. Kubafundi nothisha, beqonda ukungezwani kwezingozi eziphindwe kabili kunikeza ifasitela libe yizindinganiso ezibanzi zomthetho-sisekelo: ukubonakala kobumsulwa, ilungelo lokuqulwa ngokulunga, kanye nemingcele yamandla kahulumeni.

[[[UMTH:0] Imithombo yemali ye-External yokufundwa okuqhubekayo:[[UMTL:1]