Isisekelo SobuFalistism Ekubuseni KwaseMelika

I-Federalism, njengoba yamiswa nguMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., idala ukuhlukana okuyingqayizivele kobukhosi phakathi kukahulumeni wezwe nezifundazwe ezingamashumi amahlanu. Lesi sakhiwo asisona nje ilungiselelo lokucabanga kodwa isimiso esisebenzayo esilawula zonke izici zomthetho nomthetho. ISichibiyeli seshumi sigcina wonke amagunya angaphathiswanga uhulumeni kuhulumeni noma abantu, abeke isisekelo sobuhlobo obunamandla futhi obunye ngezinye izikhathi obuxabanayo. Ukuqonda lesi sisekelo sibalulekile ekuhloleni indlela imithetho eyakhiwa ngayo, ibekwe ngayo, futhi ibekwe ngayo.

Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo okungokomlando kwe-unistism yaseMelika kuye kwahamba ngezigaba eziningana. Kusukela ekugcizelelweni kweRepublic yokuqala kwemithetho emibili ehlangene yombuso ̬ lapho imibuso yombuso nohulumeni yagcinwa khona ihlukene kakhulu i̵ kuhulumeni obambisanayo wenkathi ye-New Deal, futhi enkathini yanamuhla ephawulwe ukukhululwa okukhulu kwe-authonist nemibandela, lesimiso siye sashintsha izidingo zesizwe. Nokho, lokhu kuthambekela kuveza futhi ukuyinkimbinkimbi nengxabano eyenzeka ngezikhathi ezithile.

Ubukhosi Obubodwa: Indlela Amandla Ahlanganyelwa Ngayo

Ngaphansi koMthetho - sisekelo wase-U.S., kokubili ohulumeni bezwe nohulumeni banegunya elizimele lokulawula phakathi kwezici zabo. Ukuhlela uhulumeni kahulumeni kunezinqubo ezibalwayo ezitholakala ngokuyinhloko eSigabeni I, iSiqeshana 8, kuhlanganise namandla okulawula ezentengiselwano zamazwe, imali, ukusakaza impi, nokumisa amahhovisi eposi. Ngokuhlukile, iUnited States isebenzisa amandla ayo amaphoyisa i̬ igunya elikhulu lokumisa imvume yempilo, ukuphepha, inhlalakahle, nenhlalakahle evamile yezakhamuzi zayo.

Lokhu kubusa okumbaxambili kusho ukuthi umsebenzi owodwa ungangaphansi kwakho kokubili ukuqondiswa kukahulumeni nombuso. Ngokwesibonelo, imboni yezokwakha kumelwe ivumelane nezindinganiso zokuphepha zomthetho womsebenzi kahulumeni ezimiswe yi-OSHA, imithetho yokuphepha emsebenzini kahulumeni, imithetho yendawo ehlangene ephoqwa yi-EPA, nemvume yendawo ezungezile kahulumeni. Umphumela uyi-webhthili yokuqondisa kokubili okungabanzi futhi ngezinye izikhathi, okungenani.

Igunya Lokuqondisa: Izindawo Zokukhathazeka Kwesizwe

Uhulumeni kahulumeni i’ umthetho olawulayo ufinyelela kunoma iyiphi indaba enomphumela ophawulekayo kwezentengiselwano zamazwe ahlukene, imfundiso eye yachazwa kabanzi iNkantolo Ephakeme. Izindawo eziyinhloko zomthetho okhethekile noma oyinhloko kahulumeni zihlanganisa:

  • Izentengiselwano ze-Intertate kanye nezohwebo - iCommerce Claus enika iziphakamiso iziKhomishane zokulawula umsebenzi wezezomnotho oweqa imingcele kahulumeni, kusukela ekuthutheni izikebhe kuya ezimakethe zezimali.
  • [[[NT:0] Isivikelo somsuka -Mithetho enjenge-Cease Air Act ne-Chrean Water Act imisa izindinganiso zesizwe okumelwe izifunda zihlangane nazo noma zeqe.
  • [ Amalungelo e-Civil kanye nokungaphikisi izimiso ezihlangene njenge-Civil Rights Act ka-64 ethatha indawo yemithetho kazwelonke eguquguqukayo.
  • Izindinganiso zomsebenzi kanye nezindinganiso zemisebenzi - I-Fair Labor Standard Act imisa iholo elinciphileyo nemithetho ethatha isikhathi esengeziwe ezweni lonke.
  • Ukudla nokuphepha kwemilaliso - iFDA ilawula imithi, imishini yezokwelapha, kanye nokuphepha kokudla emigqeni kahulumeni.

Igunya Likahulumeni Lokuqondisa: Izinhlangano Zentando Yeningi

UJaji Louis Brandeis wachaza izigodlo ezidumile ngokuthi "izikhundla zentando yeningi," ezikwaziyo ukuhlola izindlela ezintsha zokuqondisa. Ama- States anegunya eliyinhloko:

  • [ Imfundo izilinganiso zeCurricuum, isiqinisekiso sothisha, kanye nokuxhasa kwesikole yimithwalo yemfanelo yezwe neyomphakathi.
  • [ Ukuhanjiswa kwemali yokunakekela [[[FLT: 1] - Ukuzinika ochwepheshe bezokwelapha, ukulawulwa kwezimakethe zomshuwalense, kanye nokuphatha kweMedicaid kulawulwa ngokwezinga likahulumeni.
  • Ukuphepha kwePublic nomthetho wobugebengu imithetho yobugebengu eminingi kakhulu, kuhlanganise naleyo ehlobene nokweba, ukuhlasela, kanye namacala ezidakamizwa, kuyizindaba zikahulumeni.
  • Izwe elisetshenziswayo kanye nezindawo zendawo umthetho wezakhiwo, ikhodi lokwakha, kanye nokubusa kukamasipala kwehla ngaphansi kwamandla ombuso wamaphoyisa.
  • Ukuvota nokhetho - U- States uhlela ukhetho, umisa amahora okuvota, futhi udwebe izigodi zomthetho-mthetho, ngaphansi kokuvinjelwa komthetho-mthetho kahulumeni.

Imfundiso Yokudelelwa: Lapho Umthetho Wesifunda Ugcizelela Umthetho KaHulumeni

Isici esibucayi sobuzwe uSupremacy Claus, oqinisekisa ukuthi lowomthetho kahulumeni ungumthetho ophakeme wezwe. Lokhu kusho ukuthi lapho imithetho kahulumeni nombuso iphikisana, kuphuma umthetho kahulumeni. Umqondo wokukhulula unemiphumela emikhulu yemithetho nokugcinwa.

Intethelelo ingaba yileyo eveza, lapho uMkhandlu uveza ngokucacile inhloso yawo yokuthatha insimu, noma usikisela, lapho icebo lokuqondisa likahulumeni libanzi kakhulu kangangokuba lishiya ingenandawo yokuthasiselwa kwezwe. Ngokwesibonelo, iFederal Food, Drug, neCosmetic Act ibekwe ukuba ikhiphe izimfuneko ezithile zikahulumeni zokubeka izimpawu zezidakamizwa, ukuqinisekisa izindinganiso zesizwe ezihlangene. Izinkantolo zivame ukulwa nezinga lokuhlengwa, zilinganise isidingo sesizwe sokuhlangana nemithetho e-̱ amandla angokwesiko amaphoyisa. Izimo zamuva ezihilela ukugcinwa kwemidanti ([[FLT:]]]] AMacazongala.[FLD:1]]) futhi zingalinganisela isimiso sokulawula ([FFT] [FT]][2]

Ukubambisana Kwezinqubo Zokubambisana: Ukusebenzisa Imishini Ebophayo

Imithetho yanamuhla ngokuvamile isebenza ngesimiso sikahulumeni esibambisanayo, lapho uhulumeni kahulumeni ubeka khona izindinganiso ezibanzi futhi unikeza futhi uphoqelele ukuba ziqondiswe ngohulumeni.

Ngaphansi kwe-Ceac Air Act, i-EPA imisa i-National Awabient Mooty Difect, kodwa isifundazwe ngasinye sithuthukisa i-Plan yokuphelelisa Izimiso zikaHulumeni (SIP) ichaza indlela ezizohlangabezana ngayo nalezozindinganiso. I-EPA kumelwe ivumele i-SIP futhi ingene uma i-SP ihluleka ukuhambisana. Ngokufanayo, i-Occupational Safety and Health Act ivumela amazwe ukuba asebenzise izinhlelo zawo zokuphepha emsebenzini, uma nje "kungakhonzile" njengesimiso sombuso. Lendlela yokusebenzisana i-accompate i-sssss ishowment actywormes nokulondoloza imithombo yesizwe.

Nokho, ubuhulumeni obubambisanayo budala izingxabano. Izwe lingase limelane nomthetho ogunyazwe nguhulumeni eliwubheka njengongavumelani, oholela ekubekeni imingcele yamandla okusebenzisa (NFIB v. Sebelius[), 2012. Ukulinganisela kokuphoqelela ukubambisana kuyisihloko esiphindaphindwayo ebuhlotsheni besizwe.

I - Fiscal Féderalism: Amandla Entengo

Uhulumeni kaningi usebenzisa amandla awo okusebenzisa ukuze uthonye ukuqondisa kwemithetho. Ngokuhlobanisa izimo ezivumelwaneni zikahulumeni, uMkhandlu ungabangela amazwe ukuba amukele izimiso angase angazilahla. Ukusetshenziswa kwemigomo kuye kwasetshenziselwa ukunyusa iminyaka yokuphuza ibe ngu-21 (ngezimo zokuxhasa izimoto), ukukhuthaza ukunwetshwa kweMedicaid ngaphansi kwe-Affordal Care Act, nokuqhubela phambili inguquko yemfundo nge-Afford Recessives Act.

Leli thuluzi linamandla kodwa linempikiswano. South Dakota v. Dole (1987), iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela isimo sobudala, ithola ukuthi lihlobene ngokunengqondo nesithakazelo sobungcwele bezwe ekuphepheni emgwaqweni omkhulu. Kodwa iNkantolo [ku-NFIB v. Sebelius wanciphisa ukusetshenziswa kwemibandela elawulayo, wabulala usongo lokulahlekelwa yimali ye-Média ngenkampant. Ngakho i-dialism i-fiscalism ihlala iyinkundla encintisana lapho kubekwe khona i-construalm nenkambistion.

Izinselele Ezibangelwa Ukuvuselelwa Nokuphoqelelwa Kwabantu

Nakuba uhulumeni uvumela ukusabela nokuhlola kwendawo, uveza nezinselele ezinkulu kubaqondisi nasemabuthweni aqondiswa ngendlela efanayo.

  • Ukungaguquguquki ezifundazweni - A ibhizinisi ezifundazweni eziningi kumele lisebenzise imithetho embaxa-shiyayo elawula yonke into kusukela kumvuzo onciphile kuya ekugcineni ukwaziswa. Lokhu kwandisa izindleko zokulalela futhi kungadala ukungalingani kokuncintisana.
  • Izikhala zokuphoqelela - Uma izinhlangano zikahulumeni nombuso zinemithetho ehlelene, ukugcinwa kwamandla kungaba nzima. Iziphakamiso zemithombo nganoma yiliphi izinga zingaholela ekuphoqelelweni noma ekuphindeni kwemizamo.
  • Izimpikiswano ze-juristicial - Imibuzo ngokuthi indaba inguhulumeni noma imo elungile yini ivame ukuphelela enkantolo, izenzo zokuphoqelela nokungaqiniseki. Ukungathathi-hlangothi ngenetha kunikeza isibonelo samuva sendima eshintshayo yesifundazwe sikahulumeni.
  • Ingozi engaphansi[ - Ezindaweni lapho imibuso incintisana khona nebhizinisi, kunengozi yokuthi izonciphisa izimiso (umz., izindinganiso zendawo ezungezile) ukuze ihehe izimboni, ilulaze imigomo yezimiso zesizwe.
  • Ukuhluleka ukubeka imingcele - Izinkinga ze- Interstate njengokungcola komoya, ukusabela kobhadane, namalungelo amanzi kudinga isenzo esihlanganyelwayo esingaba nzima. Ukusabela okuhlukene kombuso ku-COVID-19 kwabonisa kokubili izinzuzo zokuzama kwendawo kanye nezindleko zenqubo ehlukene.

Indima Yezinhlangano Zokubambisana

Izinhlangano ze-Food and Drug Administration njenge-Environmental Protection Agency, i-Occupational Safety and Health Administration, i-Federal Trade Commission, ne-Food and Drug Administration zifeza izindima ezibucayi ekuqinisekiseni imithetho yobuzwe. Zimisa imithetho, ukuhlola, ukubeka izijeziso, futhi zisebenza nohulumeni ukuze ziqinisekise ukuthobela.

Lezi zikhungo zihlanganyela futhi ekubekeni imithetho echaza imithetho futhi igcwalise imininingwane. Ububanzi begunya lezinhlangano benziwa impikiswano enkulu, ikakhulukazi ngemva kwesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme i’ [i-West Virginia v. [i-EPA [2022]) elinganisela i-EPAÙ ikhono lokumisa izindinganiso zokukhipha ngaphandle kwemvume ecacile yokugunyaza imfundiso engokomthetho. Lesinqumo saqinisekisa kabusha i-"i-"i-" i-“major thiss," edinga ukukhomba izinhlangano ezicacile igunya lemithetho yemithetho yemithetho yemithetho yezentengozomnotho noma yezombangazwe. Lokhu kulinganisela kulinganisela ekubekeni iziqondiso zezimiso zezwe jikelele nokulinganiswa kwamandla phakathi kwemibuso yezwe nezwe.

Izinhlangano zikahulumeni, njengeminyango yezinga lendawo ezungezile, impilo, nezisebenzi, zivame ukusebenza njengabaphoqeleli abaphambili bezinhlelo ezigunyazwe uhulumeni nohulumeni. Imali yazo, izisebenzi, nezinto eziza kuqala zithinta ngokuqondile ukugcinwa kwemithetho. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuphumelela kwe-Cec Water Act kuxhomeke kakhulu ekuhlolweni kwamanzi okusesilinganisweni sikahulumeni nasekuvumeleni izinhlelo, ezihluka kakhulu ngokuqina.

Ukuhlola Izenzakalo: Ukuthatha Isigaba Seqembu Endulo Ngaphesheya Kwezindawo Eziyisihluthulelo

Ukuhlola izibonelo zezwe langempela kuyasiza ekusikhanyiseni indlela ukubusa kukahulumeni okushintsha ngayo imiphumela.

I - Clean Air Act neCalifornia & # 8217; i - Waiver

Ngaphansi kwe-Ceac Air Act, iCalifornia inomthetho ohlukile ovumela ukuba ibeke isilinganiso sayo siqu sentuthu yemoto, esiqinile kunesombuso, ngenxa yezinkinga zayo ezinzima zokungcola komoya nomlando wobuholi. Ezinye izifundazwe zingakhetha ukwamukela izindinganiso zeCalifornia. Lelilungiselelo liye laholela ekuncipheni kwemibuso elawulayo, iCalifornia kanye namanye amazwe ayishumi nambili aphishekela ukuncishiswa kwegesi eshisayo enobukhali kakhulu kunaleyo efunwa uhulumeni. Umbango phakathi kwezindinganiso zikahulumeni nombuso kuyimiphumela eqondile ye-ganolizimu.

Ukugunyazwa kwamacala ezwe: Impi Yasesifundazweni

Naphezu kokunqatshelwa kwentombaza ngaphansi komthetho we-Guipted Substances Act kahulumeni, izifundazwe eziningi ziye zagunyaza umthetho wezokwelapha noma ukusebenzisa ezokuzijabulisa. Igebe eliwumphumela lidala izinselele. Amanxusa angokombuso anjenge-Drug Enforcement Administration angathola, abenzi bezemthetho, kodwa ngaphansi kwe-Trump ne Biden abaphathi be-Cermpe, ukuqondisa okufana neCole Metrirandom ikhiphe umthetho onjalo. Le nqubo i-Proving i-csss jource project ephikisa ukuthi i-iphaka i-mthetho ephikisa i-mthetho. I-SAFEEing Beating Act, yaziswa ngokuphindaphindiwe eKhosime, ifuna ukuxazulula ezinye zalezi zimpikiswano ngokuvumela amabhizinisi anjalo ngaphandle kwesigwebo se-gudumess, ibonisa indlela yokusebenza kwe-oventimes provicessssssssss internabiant.

Ukubuyiselwa Kwempilo Nomthetho Wokunakekela Ongenakulinganiswa

I-Affordble Care Act (ACA) yancike kakhulu emabuhlotsheni obunye bezwe. I-United States yanikezwa indlela yokusungula izivumelwano zayo siqu zomshuwalense wempilo nokunweba iMedicaid. INkantolo Ephakeme i’ isinqumo ku-NFIB] v. Sebelius wenziwa uMicaid ngokuphumelelayo, okuholela ekubeni igebe elingapheli lenkokhela ezifundazweni ezingezona ezentengiswayo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, izimfuneko zezinzuzo zempilo nezibukelo zegumbi elishiywe ezindaweni ezihlukeneyo zezwe. Umphumela yi-AA̱.

Ukuphawula Amalungelo Nemithetho Yokhetho KaHulumeni

Federalism ithinta ngokuqondile umthetho wokuvota. UMthetho-sisekelo umisa igunya lokulawula ukhetho, ngaphansi kwemithetho kahulumeni evimbelayo njenge-Voting Rights Act neSichibiyelo se-14. Ngemva kokuba iNkantolo Ephakeme ikhiphe ilungiselelo eliyinhloko leSivumelwano samalungelo Shelby County v. I-Hander [2013], amazwe amaningana amisa imithetho eqinile yokuvota i-ID, anciphisa ukuvota kwasekuqaleni, futhi asusa imishwanala. Lezinguquko ziye zabekelwa inselele enkantolo, ngemiphumela eqhubekayo engaphambili e-prelibration andfication. Ukuhlelwa kokhetho kuholela kokungena kwevota, ukuncintiswa ngokushisa okushisayo kwempi yezombangazwe kwezombangazwe yaseMelika.

Ikusasa LobuProfethi Nokuvumelana

Ukuhlanganisa izinselele i-̬ kusukela ekusebenziseni i-inthanethi nemininingwane kuya ekusebenziseni ukuhlakanipha kokwenziwa kanye nokushintsha kwesimo sezulu i-̬ ihlola amandla esimiso sikahulumeni okusabela ngokuphumelelayo. Izingxoxo ziyanda ngokuthi izisekelo zokulawula kufanele yini zifakwe esikhungweni noma zincishiswe kakhulu.

Ubuchwepheshe Nemininingwane Eyimfihlo

Kungekho umthetho kahulumeni obanzi wemininingwane yezindaba zomuntu siqu kahulumeni, usho njengoCalifornia (neCPA), iVirginia, neColorado, idlulise imithetho yazo, idala ishwa elihloniphiswe izinkampani zobuchwepheshe. Ithuba lomthetho wezobuchwepheshe kahulumeni olahla izindinganiso zikahulumeni kuyindaba enkulu yesimiso somthetho. Ngokufanayo, umthetho weziteshi ze-webhthithi ye-intanethi yokulinganisela okugcwele, ukungenela kokhetho, nokuzonda kuhilela imibuzo eyinkimbinkimbi ngobukhulu beSigaba se-Decpect nemizamo kahulumeni yokubeka izaba.

Ukushintsha Kwesimo Sezulu Nendawo Ezungezile

Ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu kudinga kokubili ukujwayela kwezindawo nokuzivumelanisa kwembulunga yonke. I-Federalism ihlela ikhono lezifundazwe lokuthatha i-prigoring, ukuvuselelwa kwezindinganiso zecarbon, i-transmigration, nesilinganiso semoto. I-Biden iphinde yahlanganisa izinhloso zezwe lonke kuyilapho inika imibuso amandla ngemithetho ye-EPA kanye nokutshala izimali. Nokho, izinselele ezingokomthetho ezisekelwe ezisekelwe ezimisweni ze-gunjini, njengemfundiso eyinhloko, isongela ukunqanda ukuthatha isinyathelo sikahulumeni. Amazwe futhi akha imifelandawonye enjenge-Regionaryhouse Greenhouse Gas Intection ukuze axhumane, ebonisa indlela uhulumeni okwazi ngayo ukuhlanganisa i-EPARGenetic ngaphandle kobuthomo wombuso.

Ikusasa lobuzwe cishe liyohlanganisa umzabalazo oqhubekayo phakathi kokuhlanganisa nokuhlukahluka, phakathi kwesifiso sombuso nezwe. Izinguquko ezithi ukulandelana kwesimiso esiphambanayo sombuso, ukucacisa ukuhlengwa, nokuthuthukisa ukubambisana kwezezwe kunganciphisa ukungezwani kuyilapho kugcinwa izinzuzo zokubusa kwendawo. Ukucaca okukhulu kwezenzo zokuqinisekisa nokuhlanganyela ulwazi olungcono phakathi kwezinhlangano zikahulumeni nohulumeni kungathuthukisa ukulandisa.

Isiphetho

Umthetho uthonya kakhulu ukudalwa, ukuchazwa, nokugcinwa kwemithetho eUnited States. Isimo sawo sokubusa sawo sivumela kokubili izindinganiso zesizwe kanye nokuzivumelanisa kwendawo, kodwa futhi ubangela ukungavumelani, ukulwa kombuso, nobunkimbinkimbi. Ukudlala ngamandla phakathi kwezindawo ezilawulayo nezombuso kubangela ukuma kwemvelo, ukuvikela impilo, amalungelo ezakhamuzi, nezinye izakhiwo. Ngokuqonda indlela uhulumeni olawulayo osakaza ngayo amandla nokwenza kokubili amathuba, abafundisi, abafundi, kanye nabakhiqinisi bemithetho yokulawula i-mo ye-Riphabliki yaseMelika. Ukuqhubeka nokufunda, kuhlola [[FLT] uMthetho-mthetho owe-Ath [5] owe-10] owe-Anhlansile. [2]