Buyini UbuFederalism?

UFederalist uyisimiso sokubusa esisakaza amandla phakathi kwegunya lesizwe eliphethe kanye nezinhlangano zezombangazwe ezihlangene − njengamazwe, izifundazwe, noma ama-canton. E-United States, lesi sakhiwo sidala amazinga amabili kahulumeni azimele asebenza kanyekanye endaweni eyodwa nabantu. Ngokungafani nesimiso sokuhlanganisa lapho uhulumeni omkhulu unegunya eliphethe khona eliphelele, uhulumeni uqinisekisa ukuthi ohulumeni bagcina inkululeko ekhethekile ezindaweni ezichaziwe zezimiso.

Lomqondo usekelwe kumthetho-sisekelo obhaliwe obala ngokucacile amandla kahulumeni wombuso kuyilapho ugcinela yonke eminye imibuso ezweni. Lengxenye yomthetho-sisekelo ayiminye; iye yavela ngokulungisa, ngemithetho yeNkantolo Ephakeme, nangomkhuba wezombangazwe. Ososayensi bezombangazwe bavame ukuchaza izici ezimbili eziphikisanayo zobuzwe:

  • I-Dial Federalism (Layer Cake Federalism):[ ibheka ohulumeni bezwe nohulumeni njengabahlukene, abahlukene abanezimbulunga ezichazwe ngokucacile. Lesibonelo salawula ikhulu le-19 leminyaka nasekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20.
  • I-Federation Federalism (I-Cake Federalism e-Marble):[ igcizelela imithwalo yemfanelo ehambisanayo nokubambisana kohulumeni. Lesibonelo sathola ukuvelela phakathi nenkathi ye-New Deal futhi siyaqhubeka sihlela ukubusa kwanamuhla.

UbuFederalism bukhona futhi phakathi kobudlelwano bohulumeni − ama-grant-in-aid, iziyalo, kanye nokuhlengwa — okungakho uhulumeni wezwe uthonya isimiso sikahulumeni. Ukuqonda lezi zindlela ezinamandla kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ukubusa ngentando yeningi kwaseMelika okusebenza ngayo.

Umlando Oqhubekayo We - Federalism E - United States

Ukusuka Ekuvumelweni Kwabantu Kuya Ebuthweni Lomthetho - sisekelo

Isimiso sobuzwe saseMelika esiwumbungu sivela kuyi-Theats of Confederation (1781), eyadala iSishaya-Mkhandlu esibuthakathaka futhi yanika cishe lonke igunya ezindaweni. Leli lungiselelo labonakala lingasebenzi .IChonarent alikwazi ukulawula ezentengiselwano, intela ye-levy, noma ukuphoqelela imithetho ngokuphumelelayo. Ukuntengantenga kwezomnotho, izingxabano zezentengiselwano, nokuvukela kukaShays kwadalula amaphutha.

IConstitution of the Constitution ka 1787 yaveza ipulani ehluke kakhulu. UMthetho-sisekelo wanikeza uhulumeni ophethe amandla abaliwe (Artle I, Ingxenye 8) kanye nesigaba esiphezulu (Artle VI) ukwenza umthetho kahulumeni ube umthetho ophakeme wezwe. Nokho iSichibiyelo seshumi, senezelwe ngo1791, sabekwa ngokucacile imibuso engagunyazwanga abantu. Lokhu kubusa okumbaxambili kwaba yikho okuyisisekelo sombuso waseMelika.

IRepublic Yakuqala Nenkinga Yokungasitholi Izikhali

Amashumi okuqala eminyaka eRepublic ahlola imingcele yegunya likahulumeni. IAlien ne-Sedition Acts (1798) yabangela ukuphikisa kwe-Kentucky ne-Virginia Resolution, eyaphikisa ngokuthi imibuso ingaqeda imithetho kahulumeni engekho ngokomthetho. Nakuba ukuchithwa kungamukelwa nakancane ngokomthetho, impikiswano yafanekisela izingxabano zesikhathi esizayo. I-Nullitiation Crisis ka-1832-1833, eyabangelwa ukuphikisa kuka-South Carolina kuhulumeni, yaphela ngokuhlehliswa kodwa yaqinisekiswa ngokubekwa kwesikhundla sikahulumeni ngosongelo lwebutho lezempi lukaMongameli uAndrence Jackson.

Impi Yombango Neziphendulo Zokulungisa

IMpi Yangaphakathi (1861-1865) ngokuyisisekelo yaguqula ukulinganisela kukahulumeni. I-Union imise ukuthi izifundazwe azinakukwazi ukuthatha i-secede nokuthi uhulumeni wezwe ungaqinisa izindinganiso zesizwe. ISichibiyelo se-construction(Thirteenth) (ukukhishwa kobugqila), i-14 (isivikelo esilinganayo, inqubo efanelekile, kanye nezakhamuzi), kanye ne-15 (amalungelo ahlukene) nemithetho emisha kohulumeni kanye negunya elikhulisiwe phezu kwamalungelo omphakathi.

I - New Declarance Nombango Obambisanayo

Phakathi noKuwohloka Kwezomnotho Okukhulu, uMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal yandisa kakhulu izinhlelo zikahulumeni kahulumeni wombuso ekuhleleni kwezomnotho nasenhlalakahleni yezenhlalo. INkantolo Ephakeme yaqale yalahla imithetho eminingi ye-New Defere kodwa ekugcineni yashintsha, isekela izincazelo ezibanzi zeCommerce Claus nentela namandla okusebenzisa. Lenkathi isekela ubuhulumeni obubambisana, lapho uhulumeni wanikeza khona iziphiwo kanye nezisusa zokusebenzisa izinhlelo zesizwe.

Ukuziphendukela Kwemvelo NeReagan Era

Ngasekupheleni kwekhulu lama-20 kwavela ukuphikisana negunya eliphethe. Umongameli uRonald Reagan wakhuthaza “i-New Federalism,” ekhuthaza ukubuyela kwegunya ezindaweni ngeminyango evimbelayo nangokuvimbela. I-Crevery and Work Proception Reconciliation Act ka-1996 (inguquko yeshumi elinesihlanu) yanikeza ukuvumelana okukhulu kwezimiso zezenhlalakahle. Lo kuthambekela kokususa ushintsho kuyaqhubeka kuthonya izimpikiswano zemfundo, ezokwelapha, nezimiso zendawo.

Ukuhlukana Kwamandla Omthetho - sisekelo

UMthetho - sisekelo waseU.S. usakaza amandla phakathi kukahulumeni kahulumeni, imibuso, nabantu ngezigaba ezintathu:

  • Amandla alinganisiwe (Indabuko): Ohlelwe ngokusemthethweni eSigabeni I, Ingxenye 8, lezi zihlanganisa amandla okukhokha imali, ukumemezela impi, ukulawula isifundazwe nesezinye izindawo, ukumisa amahhovisi eposi, kanye nokuphakamisa amabutho. Uhulumeni uphinde ube namandla athathwa ku-Claus (Ingxenye I, i-Classiane 18), njengoba kusungulwe ku- Mcloch. Maryland[FL:3]
  • I-Reserved Powers:[ ISichibiyelo seshumi esigciniwe ezindaweni noma yimiphi imibuso engaphathiswanga i-United States noma enqatshelwe ezweni. Lezi zihlanganisa ukuqondisa ezentengiselwano zezwe, ukuqhuba okhetho, ukumisa ohulumeni bendawo, ukunikeza imfundo yomphakathi, nokusebenzisa amandla amaphoyisa ukuze kuzuze impilo yomphakathi, ukuphepha, nokuziphatha.
  • Amandla angokonyaka: Zombili lezi zigaba ziyahlanganyela amandla anjengokukhokha intela, ukuboleka imali, ukwakha imigwaqo, ukumisa izinkantolo, nokumisa imithetho. Uma kuphakama izingxabano, iSupremacy Claus ivame ukukhetha umthetho kahulumeni, ithatha ukuthi iwumthetho ngokomthetho.

Le ngxenye yenza isimo esivumelana nezimo esiye savumelanisa nokushintsha kwezidingo zesizwe kuyilapho kugcinwa ukuzibusa kukahulumeni ezindaweni eziningi. Nokho, imingcele eqondile isaphikiswana, njengoba kubonakala emazwini aqhubekayo aphathelene nezimiso zendawo ezungezile, ukunakekelwa kwempilo okugunyaza, nokugcinwa kokuthunyelwa kwezindawo.

Indima YeNkantolo Ephakeme Ekulweni Nezikhungo Zokulwela Uhulumeni

INkantolo Ephakeme isebenza njengomsizi wokugcina wezimpikiswano zikahulumeni - ñestate. Ngezinqumo eziphawulekayo, iye yandisa futhi yavimbela amandla kahulumeni.

Icala Eliyisihluthulelo Elandayo

  • McCulloch v Maryland (1819): INkantolo yathi uhulumeni kahulumeni uphethe amandla adlula lawo adwetshwe ngokucacile, futhi lawomazwe awakwazi ukukhokhisa intela yezinhlangano zikahulumeni. Lesi sinqumo sagcizelela ubukhulu bukahulumeni.
  • Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Wachaza iClaus yezentengiselwano ukuze ihlanganise noma yimuphi umsebenzi onqamule imigqa yombuso, emisa ukulawula okukhulu kukahulumeni kokuhamba nohwebo.
  • Izwi elizwakalayo le-Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964):[[FLT]] Isihloko II esise-Ivivile Act ye-Civil Rights Act, ibusa ukuthi ubandlululo lwezinhlanga ezindlini zomphakathi luthinta kakhulu ezentengiselwano zamazwe.

Amacala Ayinhloko Alinganisela Igunya Lomphakathi

  • United States v. Lopez (1995): Umthetho weSibhamu-Sikolo Esikhululekile, uphethe ukuthi ukuba nesibhamu eduze kwesikole akuyithinteli kakhulu intengiselwano yesifunda sezwe. Lokhu kwaphawula okokuqala emashumini amaningi eminyaka amandla ezentengiselwano eSigungu seNkanto.
  • Shicilelaz v. United States (1997): Izingxenye ezingagunyaziwe ze-Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act eyayidinga ukugcinwa kwemithetho yezwe neyomthetho yendawo ukuba iqondise isizinda, ibusa ukuthi uhulumeni kahulumeni ungakwazi ukuqondisa izikhulu zikahulumeni.
  • I-National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (202): Wabheka i-Affordible Care Act njengomthetho wentela kodwa wabulala ukwanda okusemgceni we-Medicaid, ukuqinisekisa ukuthi izifunda zingaphoqelelwa ukwamukela izinhlelo zikahulumeni.
  • Shelby County v. Hoker (2013): Inqanda uhlelo lokuhlanganisa loMthetho wama malungelo, ibusa ukuthi uhulumeni kahulumeni kumelwe asebenzise imniningo yamanje kunezindlela zomlando ukuze anqume ukuthi iziphi izifunda ezifuna ukuhlelwa kusengaphambili kwemithetho kahulumeni.

Amacala abonisa umzabalazo oqhubekayo wokwahlulela wokulinganisela amandla.

Ukubusa Ngobunye Ekubuseni Kwanamuhla

Isimiso Sokunakekelwa Kwempilo

I-Affordble Care Act (ACA) ibeka isibonelo sokucindezela okubangelwa yi-ACAism ebambisanayo. Nakuba uhulumeni kahulumeni umisa izindinganiso ezilinganiselwe futhi unikeza izimali, uhulumeni uphethe imishwane yempilo futhi ungandisa uMdicaid(noma ukhetha ukungakwandi. Ngo-2024, amazwe angu-40 ne-Frigiode of Columbia yandisa uMidicaid ngaphansi kwe-ACA, ishiya amazwe ayishumi ngaphandle kokwanda. Lokhu kuhlukanisa kudala umehluko omkhulu ekuhlanganiseni nemiphumela yempilo enqamule imigqa yombuso. Impikiswano ephathelene nezidakamizwa, i-telehealth command, kanye nezimo zempilo zomphakathi (njengobangendlela umqedazwe we-CHOVID) iphinde ivid-19) ihlole ubuhlobo obuphakathi nombuso.

Ukubuyiselwa Kwendawo Ezungezile

Imithetho yendawo ezungezile efana ne-Cease Air Act ne-Ceac Water Act ivumela amazwe ukuba asebenzise izinhlelo zawo, ngaphansi kwemvume ye-Nzalo-bumelo-mganiso (EPA). Nokho, izifunda zikahulumeni zibekela imithetho kahulumeni i-(California i-'s'ir'umniver' eqinile'ukumisa isilinganiso esiqinile sezindinganiso zokukhipha imoto esingu-Dayela. Ukubusa kweNkakhulu kuka-20222 [FL:0] West Virginia v. I-EPA yalinganisela igunya lenhlangano lokulawula amagesi ashisayo ngaphansi kwe-Device Air Act, ikhomba ukushintshela ukuqondiswa kwemvume yezwe.

Imfundo

Indima kahulumeni ekutholeni imfundo ngokwesiko yayigxile ekuxhaseni ukugcinwa kwamalungelo abantu ngokulinganayo. I-EsSA ka-2015 i-Everseeds Act (ESSA) ilawula okubalulekile emuva ezindaweni nasezindaweni, inciphisa ukuqondisa kwezwe ekuhlolweni okuvamile nokubekwa kwecala kwesikole. Kodwa izimpikiswano ezimayelana nezifundo zesikole, izincwadi zomtapo wezincwadi, nenkolelo-mbono yezinhlanga egxekayo ibangele imibuzo engcono mayelana nokulawula kwezwe.

Ubulungisa Bobugebengu Nokugunyazwa Kwama - Marijuana Ngokomthetho

I-Federalism ikha iqoqo lemithetho kahulumeni elawula i-cannabis. Kusukela ekuqaleni kuka-2025, izifundazwe eziyi-24 ne-Foourts yaseColumbia ziye zagunyaza ukugunyaza insangu yokuzijabulisa, kuyilapho ezinye eziningi zivumela ukusetshenziswa kwezokwelapha. Nokho insangu ihlala iyisici sesimiso sokusebenza I ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni, idala izingxabano mayelana nokubhangi, ezomthetho wezwe, ezomthetho wezomthetho wezwe, kanye nokugcinwa kwamandla. Izimiso zemithetho yokugcinwa kwabaphathi be- Justice Department ziye zashintsha i-partment-ssss.

Ukuthunyelwa Kwamandla Okufuduka

Ukungena ngokuyinhloko kuwumthwalo wemfanelo kahulumeni, kodwa uhulumeni ufuna ukuhileleka ngokuqhubekayo. I-SB 1070 yase-Arizona (2070) yazama ukuqinisa ukugcinwa komthetho kahulumeni ukuze ihlole ukufuduka, kuholela ekunqabeni kweNkantolo Ephakeme e] Arizona v. United States [20202]. Ngokuphambene, “idolobha elinomphakathi” lilinganisela ukubambisana kweziphathimandla zezwe nezokufuduka, ukuvimbela izimpi ezingokomthetho ezithathelwe intele phambili ne-Hendith Amendument.

Imibono Eqhathaniswayo: Isimiso Sokusebenzelana Kwezizwe Emhlabeni Wonke

I-United States ayiyodwa ekwakheni ukubusa kukahulumeni. Ezinye izimiso zikahulumeni zihlanganisa iJalimane, iCanada, iNdiya, i-Australia, iBrazil, neSwitzerland.

  • IsiJamani:[ UMthetho oMkhulu umisa ubuzwe obubambisanayo obunobunye obunamandla phakathi kwe-Länder (izifunda). IBundesrat (indlu engaphezulu) imelela ohulumeni bezwe ngokwesilinganiso sesizwe.
  • Canada:[ UMthetho woMthetho woMthetho-sisekelo ka-1867] unikeza izifundazwe amandla ahlukaniswe ezindaweni ezinjengemfundo nokunakekela impilo, kuyilapho uhulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni uphethe amandla okubuyisana. Uhulumeni waseCanada uhlonipheke kakhulu kunesibonelo se-U.S. ezimisweni ezithile zezenhlalo.
  • Indiya: Ivame ukuchazwa ngokuthi “i-quasi-federal,” umthetho-sisekelo waseNdiya umisa amandla engeziwe kuhulumeni wezwe, izifunda zikahulumeni ezifuna ukuqothulwa uMongameli ngaphansi kwezimo ezithile.

Ukutadisha ezinye izimiso zikahulumeni kunikeza ukuqonda uchungechunge lwamalungiselelo okulinganisela ubunye nokuhlukahluka.

Izinzuzo Nezinselele Zobuzwe

Izinzuzo

  • I-Policy Laboratories:[ i- States ingazama izimiso ezihlukene − njengokunakekela impilo yendawo yonke, ikharbon prigrag, noma izinguquko zemfundo (____ngaphandle kokubeka inselele eyingozi) ezweni lonke. Ukuhlolwa okuphumelelayo kungasetshenziswa kuhulumeni.
  • Ingxenye ekhuliswe kakhulu yezombangazwe:[ Izakhamuzi zinezindawo eziningi zokuthembisana: amabhodi esikole endawo, izishaya-mthetho zesifunda, nezishaya-mthetho zesifunda, neSishaya-mthetho. Lesi sakhiwo singenza uhulumeni aphendule futhi abe nesibopho sokulandisa.
  • Izimpawu zamandla aphakathi: Ukuncishiswa kwemithetho kusakaza igunya, kunciphisa ingozi yobushiqela ngokugxilisa amandla ngesilinganiso esisodwa.
  • Ukuhlukahluka kohlobo: Federalism ivumela izifunda ezinezici ezihlukile zamasiko, zezomnotho, noma zomphakathi ukuba zivumelane nezimiso ezithandwayo zendawo.

Izinselele

  • Ukulingana nokwehluka: Izakhamuzi ezisezindaweni ezihlukene zingaba nokuthola okuhlukene kakhulu ekunakekeleni impilo, imfundo, nezinkonzo zomphakathi. Ngokwesibonelo, ukwanda kweMedicaid ukuhlukahluka kuye kwadala igebe elihlanganisayo ezizweni ezingezona ezesigaba sobude.
  • Ukulandelana nokugobeka: Phezulu kwezindawo ezishaya izandla kungadala ukudideka, ukungafezeki, nezimiso eziphikisanayo,] ikakhulukazi emabhizinisini asebenza ngaphesheya kwemigqa kahulumeni.
  • IConfulist and Litigation: iphikisana ngokukhulula kukahulumeni, imizamo yombuso yokuchitha, kanye nemithetho engagunyaziwe ngokuvamile iholela ezimpini ezibizayo zasenkantolo.
  • I-race-isusa--ezansi izimandla: Amazwe ancintisanayo ekufakeni imali angase anciphise intela, idereguate, noma anciphise ukusetshenziswa kwemali engokwenhlalo, okungalulaza izinga lesizwe.

Le misebenzi yokuhweba ifuze ingaphakathi kunoma isiphi isimiso sikahulumeni. Inselele yabenzi bezimiso ukubopha izinzuzo kuyilapho behlela imingcele.

Ubumbano Nekusasa Lobubusi BaseMelika

I-Federalism ayiwona umqondo oguquguqukayo; iguqula ibhekane nezinkinga, ukushintsha kwezobuchwepheshe, kanye nokushintsha kwemifelandawonye yezombangazwe. Umqedazwe we-COVOVID-19 wadalula kokubili amandla nobuthakathaka bezindlela zomphakathi ezisabela kahle. Ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu kudinga ukuhlangana kwesenzo kodwa ngokuvamile kubangela imisebenzi yombuso elawulayo. Ubuchwepheshe be-Emerging obufana nokuhlakanipha kokwenziwa, ulwazi, nezimoto ezizimele ziphakamisa imibuzo ngokuthi uhulumeni noma umthetho wezwe ufanelekile yini.

Ukuhlanekezelwa kwezombangazwe kuye kwaqinisa izimpikiswano zezombangazwe. Ezinye zimisa ubukhosi obumelene nezimiso zikahulumeni zokukhipha isisu, amalungelo ezibhamu, nokuvota. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme sa 2022 [2022] ku-Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization[, ukugumbuqela v. Wade , yabuyisela umthetho wokukhipha isisu ezifundazweni, yenza ukushwithela okukhulu kwemithetho yezwe. Lokhu kubonisa indlela iNkantolo engaguqula ngayo ukulinganisela kwe-mali ngokushesha.

Ukuqonda ubuzwe bubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda ukubusa, umthetho, nezombangazwe. Ukusebenza okunamandla phakathi kukahulumeni wezwe nemibuso kuhlela cishe yonke imikhakha yemithetho((isukela empilweni nasemfundweni kuya elungelweni lomphakathi nasendaweni ezungezile. Njengoba isizwe sibhekene nezinselele ezintsha, isimiso sikahulumeni siyoqhubeka sivivinywa, silungiswe, futhi sichazwe kabusha.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola [ U.S. kanye Isichibiyeli sezentengo [ se-Galgial Information Institute, kanye ne- Conference yesizwe ye-State Legistrations [ yemisebe ye-ove ye-octalism ye-palism [[FLT]]] ukuhlaziya inqubo yeze-omgame.