Isingeniso: Ianchor Yomthetho - sisekelo Yentando Yeningi

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kungezinye zezici ezinamandla kakhulu neziphikisanayo zesimiso somthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Iyindlela okungasetshenziswa kuyo izinkantolo − ngokuphawulekayo iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States ``idermine' ukuthi imithetho, izenzo zokuphatha, nezimiso zikahulumeni ziyavumelana noMthetho-sisekelo. Leligunya, nakuba kungekho ndawo embhalweni woMthetho-sisekelo, liye laba i-eheader ebalulekile enqulwini yomthetho-mthetho nakuwo. Ngaphandle kokubukeza komthetho wezomthetho-mthetho, uMthetho-mgaqo wezomthetho ubungabeka engozini yokuba yizimiso ezisemthethweni eziboshelwayo, eziphoqelelwe umthetho ophakeme. Edemocrity, lapho umthetho omningi kumelwe ulinganiswe ngokulinganayo namalungelo omuntu ngamunye, ukubukezwa komthetho kuqinisekisa ukuthi akukho gatsha likahulumeni owedlula imingcele ebekwe ngencwadi yokusungula.

Lemfundiso isebenza njengesisekelo somthetho, iphoqelela bonke abadlali bakahulumeni ukuba benze ngokuvumelana nemithetho engokomthetho. Uma inkantolo ikhipha umthetho noma ichitha umthetho wesikhulu, ayiqedi ukubusa ngentando yeningi kodwa iqasha isisekelo esiyisisekelo abantu ngokwabo abasigunyazayo. Lendaba ihlola umsuka, onjiniyela, nokubaluleka okuqhubekayo kokuhlola kokwahlulela, ihlola isisekelo sayo esingokomlando, ukumiswa kwayo yiNkantolo Ephakeme, ubuhlobo bayo nenkolelo yentando yeningi, kanye nezinselele zamanje ezivivinya ukufaneleka kwayo.

Kuyini Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela?

Ingxenye enkulu, ukubukezwa kokwahlulela kunamandla enkantolo okubukeza ubunjalo bomthetho-mthetho wemithetho, iziqondiso, nezenzo ezisemthethweni. E-United States, leligunya lisebenza ezenzweni zoMkhandlu, izishaya-mthetho, nezishaya-mthetho zesifundazwe, negatsha eliphethe kokubili emazingeni ombuso nombuso. Uma inkantolo ithola ukuthi umthetho uphula umthetho, imemezela umthetho ungenalutho futhi ungenalutho. Lo mbuso awulona imvume yezinkantolo yokuthatha isikhundla sezimiso ezithandwa yizikhulu ezikhethiwe; kunalokho, uyigunya elilinganiselwe lokuqinisekisa ukuthi izenzo zikahulumeni zihlala emikhawulweni yomthetho-mthetho.

Izinhlobo Zokubukeza Kokwahlulela

Ukubukeza ukwahlulela kungaqondwa emongweni we-memosfect emibili eyinhloko: ukubukeza okuhlukanisayo kanye nokubukeza komthetho-mthetho [. Ukubukeza umthetho kuhlanganisa ukuhlaziya ukuthi imigaqo, imithetho, noma iziyalezo zesikhulu zivumelana nomthetho-mthetho. Ukubukeza, ngokuqhathanisa, kuhlola ukuthi izenzo zenhlangano ziyavumelana yini nemithetho egunyaziwe ewagunyazayo [[FLT] [FLT:]] umqondo ovame ukubhekiselwa kuye ngokuthi [[FLT:]] [[FLT]] ngemva kwezehlulelo olusemthethweni [inani eliwusungulweyo]. [indlela ebumbeneyokuhlolwe yizi.A.V.V.V.V.[7]

Izinga Nemingcele Yokubukeza Ukwahlulela

Amandla okuhlola kokwahlulela awavuleki. Izinkantolo zicindezelwa yizimfundiso ezinjengethi ukuma (imfuneko yokuthi umkhakha kumelwe ulimale udaba), ukuqubuka [[[FLT:]] (icala kumelwe lilungele ukunqunywa), futhi ukulimala [icala] (icala kumelwe lihlale liphila). Ngaphezu kwalokho, izinkantolo zisebenzisa [[[FLT]] imfundiso yezentelekelelo yezentelekele, ukwenqaba ukumiswa kwemithetho engokomthetho emagatsheni ezombangazwe, futhi ukwenqaba ukunquma ukuthi inqubo yezomthetho yezomthetho ihlelwe noma yezomthetho. [[FLT]

Umlando: Kusukela eCholoni Charters kuya eMarbury v.

Umqondo wokuthi izinkantolo zingamisa imithetho ephambene nomthetho-mthetho oyisisekelo obekwe ngaphambi koMthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. USir Edward Coke, ku Dr. Icala likaBonham [ [1610] [1610], waphikisa ngokuthi “lapho isenzo sephalamende simelene nelungelo nesizathu, umthetho ovamile uyowulawula.” Nakuba umbono ka-Coke awuzange ugxile eNgilandi, wathonya ukucabanga kwamaZwe aseMelika. Izinkantolo zokuqala zikahulumeni zazishaya imithetho ephula umthetho wezwe, zimisa isiko lobungameli.

Ukwakhiwa okuqinisekile komkhandlu wokwahlulela ezingeni likahulumeni kwafika uMarbury v. Madison [1803]]. Ngaleyondlela, uWilliam Marbury, umise uMongameli John Adams ophumayo, wafuna icebo lokuphoqa uNobhala weSizwe uJames Madomain ukuba adlulisele umsebenzi wakhe. UJaji omkhulu John Marshall, ebhalela iNkantolo yezombangazwe: ukubusa kukaMarbury kungenza isikhulu sidedele; ukubusa kwakhe kungalulaza i-judiary. UMarshall wayezokwazi ukubusa ngokuthi nakuba uMarbury ayenelungelo lokuthunywa kwakhe, iNkantolo ayikhiphe ngenxa yomthetho onikeza umthetho wokuqala ezimweni ezinjalo ze-JCheulticston u-Active.[8]

Isihluthulelo Sokuthatha Indawo Ethile eMarbury v. Madison

  • UMthetho - sisekelo uwumthetho ophakeme wezwe, futhi noma yimuphi umthetho owenyanyekayo kulo awunalutho.
  • Kungumsebenzi wejaji ukuchaza uMthetho - sisekelo nokwenqaba ukugcinwa kwemithetho engekho ngokwesimiso somthetho.
  • Ukubukeza ukwahlulela kunikeza isixwayiso esibucayi mayelana namandla omthetho, kuqinisekisa ukuthi uMkhandlu awuweqeli igunya lawo elibaliwe.

Ngemva [[FLT] , iNkantolo Ephakeme yayithatha kancane ukusebenzisa amandla ayo amasha. Ayizange ishaye esinye umthetho kahulumeni kwaze kwaba .Dred Scott v. Sandford [1857]] [isinqumo esiyinhlekelele esaqeda ukungezwani kweMissouri nokujula imingcele. Kodwa, isimiso sasiqinile, futhi ngemva kweMpi Yombango, iNkantolo yasebenzisa ukubukeza ukuguqula indawo engokomthetho wesizwe.

Indima YeNkantolo Ephakeme Ekubukezeni Kwanamuhla Kokwahlulela

INkantolo Ephakeme ihlala eqophelweni lenkantolo kahulumeni. Unyaka ngamunye, ithola izicelo ezingaba ngu - 7 000 kuya ku - 8 000 ze-certiorari, kodwa iyavuma ukuzwa amacala angaba ngu-80 kuphela. Itheku leNkantolo liyiqulwa ngokuyinhloko ngamacala aphakamisa imibuzo engokomthetho noma izingxabano ezisezinkantolo eziphansi. Le nqubo ekhethayo iqinisekisa ukuthi iNkantolo igxile ezindabeni zokubaluleka kwesizwe.

Uma inkantolo ivuma icala, ivame ukwamukela cumiae [umngane wenkantolo] ishwampuluza evela kumaqembu athakazelayo [1] izinhlangano ezithakazelayo, amaqembu enkululeko yomphakathi, amabhizinisi, nezinhlangano zikahulumeni. Lezi zici ezifushane zinikeza izinkantolo ngezimpikiswano ezengeziwe kanye nemininingwane eyimfihlo, zinweba ukuqonda kweNkantolo ngemiphumela engenzeka yesinqumo sayo. Ngemva kwengxoxo yomlomo nengqungquthela yangaphakathi, iNkanto ebhaliwe evumelana nomthetho owenze zonke izinkantolo eziphansi.

Amacala Aphakeme Asenkantolo Abonisa Ukubukezwa Kokwahlulela

  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954)) - Ngokuhlangene wakholelwa ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwaphula iSivikelo sika Claus olinganayo, kugumbuqela imfundiso ye [ elinganayo v. Ferguson [1896].]
  • Roe v. [773]) - Iqaphela ilungelo lowesifazane lomthetho-sisekelo lokweqa ngaphansi kwe-Century Claus, okuhlanganisa isinqumo sokuqeda ukukhulelwa. (Ngalé kokuhlelwa [[FLT:]]] Dobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization ngo-20222].)
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – Ithathwe leyomibhangqwana efana neyobulili inelungelo eliyisisekelo lokushada ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane.
  • United States v. Nixon [19974]) – ukusho kukaMongameli olahliwe kwelungelo eliphelele lokulawula, ukugunyaza ukukhululwa kwamakhasethi eWatergate.

Ngasinye salezi zinqumo sibonisa indlela ukuhlolwa kokwahlulela okungavikela ngayo amalungelo abantu ngabanye, ukuphoqelelwa kwezakhiwo, futhi ngezinye izikhathi, kugumbuqele imikhuba egxile kakhulu emphakathini.

Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela Nombono Wentando Yeningi

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kunikeza ukungezwani okuhlala njalo emcabangweni wentando yeningi: abahluleli abangakhethwa, abakhonza ukuphila konke, abagumbuqela imithetho edluliswa ngabameleli abakhethwe ngedemokrasi? Lokhu kwaziwa ngokuthi inkinga yokwahlulela] i-, igama eliqanjwe isazi sezezomthetho-mthetho u-Alexander Bickel. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lapho izinkantolo zishaya umthetho othandwayo, balahla intando yeningi. Abavikeli baphikisa ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo ngokwawo uyincwadi enkulu ebeka amalungelo athile adlulela ngalé kokufinyelela kwezindawo ezinkulu zesikhashana, futhi ngaphandle kokubukeza, iningi lingawaphula amalungelo amadlana.

Amasheke Nokulinganisela Okusetshenziswayo

Isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela asihlobene nokuhlola kokwahlulela kuphela. Futhi uKhongolo-mthetho ungasabela esinqumweni seNkantolo Ephakeme ngokuguqula uMthetho-sisekelo (inqubo engavamile nenzima) noma ngokumisa umthetho omusha okhuluma ngezinkinga zeNkantolo. Igatsha eliphetheyo liphoqelela (noma ngezinye izikhathi limelana) nemithetho yokwahlulela. Futhi amandla kamongameli okulawula amajaji aqinisekisa ukuthi ijaji liyi, ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, lisabela emiphumeleni ekhethekile.

Ukwethenjwa Komphakathi Nomthetho Wokwahlulela

Ukuqapha umthetho kuyimali yejaji. Ngokungafani nomongameli noma uKhongolo, iNkantolo ayinakho ukulawula isikhwama noma inkemba. Ithembele ngokuphelele ekuthobeleni ngokuzithandela imithetho yayo. Lokhu kwenza ukuthemba umphakathi kube okubalulekile. Uma umphakathi ubheka iNkantolo njengengakhethi, enezimiso, futhi ezimisele ukuphoqelela uMthetho-sisekelo ngisho nasemzweni ovamile, izinqumo zayo zinesisindo esingokokuziphatha nesomsebenzi. Nokho, ukuhlola kwamuva kubonisa ukuncipha kwethemba, ikakhulukazi ngemva kwezinqumo eziphikisanayo ngokuphathelene nokukhishwa kwezisu, amalungelo empambano, nenkululeko yenkolo. Ukulondoloza ithemba kudinga ukunamathela kobulungisa, ukuhlaziya okusobala okungokomthetho kunokuthatha isibopho somthetho noma izivumelwano.

Izinselele Zokubukezwa Kokwahlulela

Ukubukezwa kokwahlulela ekhulwini lama-20 lokuqala kubhekene nokucindezela okuvivinya ukuqina kwayo. Ukubekwa kwezwe kwezombangazwe kuye kwaqinisa inqubo yokuqinisekisa abahluleli bakahulumeni, kwenza iSigele saba yindawo yempi ngenxa yefilosofi yokwahlulela. Izinkulumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme manje zivame ukubangela ukuhlukana okujulile, zilulaza umbono wokuthi amajaji angaphezulu kwezombangazwe.

Ithonya Lombono Womphakathi

Nakuba izinkantolo zizimele ngokomthetho, umbono womphakathi ungathinta ukuthatha izinqumo zokwahlulela, ikakhulukazi ezicaleni lapho iNkantolo ihlukene kakhulu khona. Ukuhlola kusikisela ukuthi ngezinye izikhathi iNkantolo ilandela izinguquko ngokombono womphakathi ukuze igweme izinhlekelele ezingokomthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, ushintsho olusheshayo ekwamukeleni umshado owenziwe ngokwesilisa obulili phakathi kwawo-1990 nango-2010 lungathonya ukucabanga [ku- Obergefell[[. Kodwa kunengozi yokuthi iNkantolo ingenza ithatheke kakhulu, ilula indima yayo njengomphathi wamalungelo osemthethweni.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwezombangazwe Nenkantolo

Njengoba izinkolo zezombangazwe ziye zaqina, ukumiswa nokuqinisekiswa kwamajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme kuye kwabangela ukuncitshiswa okukhulu. Ukwenqaba kuka-2016 ukuqulwa kwecala likaMerrick Garland, kulandelwa ukuqinisekiswa okusheshayo kuka-Amy Coney Barrett ngo-2020, ukumangalelwa okukhushulelwe ukuthi iNkantolo imane nje iwukunwetshwa kwezombangazwe. Lombono usongela ukufaneleka kweNkantolo futhi uphakamisa imibuzo ekhathazayo ngokuhlala njalo kwendlela yokuhlola kokwahlulela: uma iNkantolo ibhekwa njengomkhasimende wezombangazwe, ingabe umphakathi uyoqhubeka ulalela izibophonsi zayo? Inkantolo ngokwayo iyinhloko yayo yezengasese isengozini.

Ukupakisha Nezinguquko Enkantolo

Abanye abashisekeli abathuthukayo, abakhungathekiswa ukutsheka okungaguquguquki kweNkantolo ngemva kokumiswa kweTrump-era, baye badinga ukuba kwandiswe inani lamajaji − umkhuba owaziwa ngokuthi ukupakisha kwenkantolo. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukuthatha okunjalo kungabangela ukukhushulwa kweNkantolo ukuba ingalungiseki futhi kubangele ukuvuselelwa noma nini lapho amandla eshintsha izandla. Abanye baveza izinguquko ezilinganiselwe ezilinganiselwe eziqinile, njengokumisa isimiso sokuziphatha esiqinile sobulungisa noma ukusungula isimiso seminyaka engu-18 eshaqikile. Lezinkulumo zigcizelela ukufaneleka okulula kweNkantolo, okusekelwe emalungiselelweni esimiso somthetho esikhundleni somthetho.

Ikusasa Lokubukeza Kokwahlulela

Ikusasa lokubukeza kokwahlulela lizololongwa yikho kokubili amandla angaphakathi nangaphandle. Ngaphakathi, ukuhlelwa kwemibono okuthinta iNkantolo kuzonquma indlela echaza ngayo uMthetho-sisekelo (*kakhulu) ngobukhombana, ngenqubo ephilayo, noma ngenye indlela. Ngaphandle kwalokho, ukucindezela kwezombangazwe, ukwethemba umphakathi, kanye nezinguquko ezingase zivele ziyovivinya ukuqina kwejaji njengenhlangano.

Izinguquko Ezingase Zibe Khona Ukuze Ziqinise Umfundisi

  • Imingcele yemithetho yamajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme. Okwamanje, ukuphila kuqinisekisiwe ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso III. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi imingcele yamagama inganciphisa izigxobo zomjoli ngabunye, inciphiso, futhi iqinisekise ukuguqulwa njalo. Izilinganiso zisuka kumagama angaphinde ashukumiswe njalo eminyakeni engu-18.
  • Ukwandisa inani lobulungisa. Ngenkathi kuphikiswana, ezinye izazi zomthetho zisekela ukwenezela izihlalo ukuze zinciphise ithonya lanoma isiphi isithembiso esisodwa. Nokho, lezingozi zibangela umjikelezo wokwanda kwempi.
  • Ikhomu lomthetho elibonakalisiwe ezimisweni zokwahlulela. UKhongolo lungafuna ukuba iNkantolo ithathe isimiso esibophayo sokuziphatha, kuhlanganise nokwembulwa kwezinqumo zomthetho kanye nezithakazelo zemali.
  • [[[FLT: 0] Imfundo yomphakathi mayelana nejaji. Izinhlelo zemfundo ye-Civic ezichaza indima nenqubo yokwahlulela ingaqinisa ukufaneleka futhi ikhuthaze inkulumo yeningi enolwazi oluthe xaxa.

Cishe akukho nokukodwa kwalezi zinguquko okuyomukelwa ngokushesha, kodwa le mpikiswano ngokwayo ibonisa ukuthembisana okuhle kwentando yeningi ngendima yejaji.

Isiphetho: Ukuhlola Ukusebenzisa Igunya

Ukubukezwa kokwahlulela akuyona into esele kakhulu yeRepublic yokuqala. Kuwumkhuba onamandla, ophikiswayo, nobalulekile ovumelana nemibuzo emisha engokomthetho nezimo zomphakathi. Kusukela ku- Marbury v. Madison kulelogama lamuva kakhulu, iNkantolo iye yasebenzisa amandla ayo ukubumba ukuphila kwaseMelika, ukuvikela amalungelo omphakathi, ukuchaza imingcele yegunya likahulumeni, nokuqinisekisa ukwahlukana kwemibuso. Iqiniso elibuzwayo liyimpikiswano futhi liyinselele isibonakaliso sokubaluleka kwayo. Edemokhrasi enempilo, akukho mandla akumelwe ahlolwe, ngisho namandla ezinkantolo. Nokho, ngaphandle kokuhlola kokwahlulela, umthetho-mthetho ulahlekelwa amazinyo, futhi amalungelo ayo angakho okuqinisekisa inkanuko enkulu.

Njengoba isizwe siqhubekela phambili, ukulondoloza ukufaneleka nokuphumelela kokuhlola kokwahlulela kuyodinga ukuqapha kuwo wonke amagatsha kahulumeni nasezakhamuzini ezikhonzayo. Ukuze ufunde ngokuqhubekayo ngomlando wokuhlola kokwahlulela, bheka Marbury v. Amakhasi abhekene no-'Oylez] ngo-Oyintez, noma ukuhlola [[FLT:] i-Chonsitution [F] Contion] yengxoxo yamandla okwahlulela [[[FLTLT:3]] eMtatsheni weSivumelo. Imiqondo yezekwakhewu. [i-Prome] [i-Frect:] ikhona eCentroult [5] i-Crimession, futhi inikeza izisekelo ze-Cheast provicencession.[5]