Ifa Elihlala Njalo LeSichibiyelo Sesithupha: Ukubhekana Nezingxabano Emakhulwini Eminyaka

Ilungelo lokubhekana nabamangaleli bomuntu ngokwalo akuyona into esungulwe namuhla; itshe lesisekelo le-Anglo-American jurisprance elandulela iSichibiyelo sesixwex [ ngokwaso]. Lenkulumo ebonakala ilula ibangele ukucaciswa, impikiswano yezazi, nesibonelo esisekelwe ekusungulweni kwenkathi ye-&lquo; impi yokulwa kwecala, ummangalelwa ujabulela i-&helpip; ukubhekana nofakazi ngokumelene naye. I-” lenkulumo ebonakala iveza amakhulu eminyaka elulayo, impikiswano yezemfundo, kanye ne-evo eveza inqubo yokuqalisa kwenkathi ye-&quo; impi ngokumelene nemfihlosi ye-&rcen; i-cuangle yemist yemibiko ye-video, imibiko ye-video, i-tecculdiase.

Umsuka Wempikiswano KaClaus: Ukusuka Ekuqulweni Kwamacala Ezihlubuki ENgilandi Kuya ESivumelwaneni Samalungelo Abantu

Imvelaphi engokomlando ye-Bhanisication Claus ilele ekusetshenzisweni kabi kwesimiso somthetho samaNgisi amaMelika abhekana nakho mathupha. Ngekhulu le-16 nele-17, izinkantolo zamaNgisi zavumela ukusetshenziswa kwe-extex affidavits[ nezinkulumo zenzwa zokumangalelwa kwabamangalelwa, ngokuvamile ngaphandle kwanoma yiliphi ithuba lokuba abamangalelwa banqamule ofakazi. Icala elibi likaSir Walter Raleigh ngo- 1603, lapho alahlwa khona kakhulu ekuvumeni izono okubhaliwe ngokuthi i-co - spylet, angazange abonakale ekhona enkantolo, waba isikhalo semi senhlolo sabanga lokusekela abashisekelinguquko. I-CelamPrestials yayincike kulomlando, futhi i-Classicque yaklat yaklat yaklad misa imisebenzi enjalo eyenzeka ngonyaka ka-196; i-&deous; inqubo eyaziwa kakhulu ye-seArdeo;

Phakathi nokudwetshwa kweBhili lamaLungelo, uJames Madison waqaphela ukuthi ummangalelwa u-’ ikhono lokubhekana nabamangaleli bakhe lafeza izinjongo eziningi: kwaqinisekisa ukuthembeka kobufakazi ngokububeka ngaphansi kokubuhlola okucitshwayo, kwaphoqelela ofakazi ukuba bafakazele ngaphansi kosongo lwezinsongo, futhi kwavumela abahluleli ukuba baqaphele ukubukeka kofakazi mathuphana. Ukuqonda kwakuqala kwakusekelwe ekufuneni kobufakazi obuphilayo, i-” njengoba iNkantolo Ephakeme yaphawula kamuva. Lomongongo ongokomlando uyagxeka: u-Claus wayengeyena nje inqaba kodwa isivikelo sikahulumeni esicukuthwane.

Izincazelo Zokuqala Zokwahlulela: Iminyaka Yokulungiselela (1791-1965)

Eminyakeni engaphezu kwekhulu ngemva kokuqiniswa, iSiphepho sika-Claus sathola ukunakekela okulinganiselwe kweNkantolo ePhakeme. INkantolo &squo; izinqumo zakuqala zasebenzisa kakhulu indinganiso eqinile, ebuso-so-busweni. ]. [I-Matox v. United States[FLT][FLT] [[1] [185] [185] [iNT] [iNkathi] [iNkakhulu] [iNkantolo] [ikhulu] [ikhulu]), iNkantolo isekela ukuthi ilungelo lokuphikisana alikwazi ukuncishwana kalula, kodwa futhi laqaphela ukuthi u-Clausle ayengenakungaphelele. INkakhululo yavuma ukuthi, i-&rd; i-Exton inguast, inguquad ingu ethembekile, ngenxa yeSivume secala esivamile, isivume se-Six.

Kulo lonke ikhulu lama - 20, izinkantolo eziphansi zalwa nokungezwani phakathi kwe - Claus nokwanda kwenzwabethi. Indlela evamile yayiwukucabangela amalungelo okuphikisana njenganelisekile uma ubufakazi bungena phakathi kwe - “ ukuhlukana kwenzwabethi okuqinile, i - ” uvivinyo olwaluyocwengisiswa futhi ekugcineni luxazululwe.

Waterdock: Coptor v. Texas (1965) kanye nokuHlalanisa

Inkathi ebucayi yenguquko yafika [FLT] Pointer v. Texas[FLT] (65]). Ngaleyondlela, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi iSixth Amendment’ i-Practivement Claus yenziwa ukuba isebenzise izisekelo [[FLT:] [4] Fitenth Demementmentment [[FLT] <] i-&squo; i-Mquo; i-Siunist Claus Systemment. Lemfundiso ehlanganisayo isho ukuthi abamangali bobugebengu manje babenelungelo lokuvikelwa isivikelo esifanayo njengabameleli besizwe ukuba bavice ngokusemthethweni. INkampelesitiso ye-umpedenti ye-umpetho yomthetho. Inkantolo eqinile igcizelela esingu-Hennerton, ingunday.

IFrame Yokwakha: Ukusuka eOhio v. Roberts kuya eCrawford v. Washington

Emashumini eminyaka ngemva kweSikhombi, indinganiso yokulawula ukucubungula i-train i-train yabekwa Ohio v. Roberts [1980]. Ngaphansi kukaRoberts, ubufakazi benzwa bebungaqondakali uma buwehlela phakathi kwe “ ngokuqinileyo ihemu elithathelwe indiva lingekho i-” noma i-aldquo; isiqinisekiso sokwethembeka. i-” Lokhu kuhlola okuthembekile kwanikeza abahluleli ukwahlulela okukhulu futhi kwaholela ekubeni nemiphumela engavumelani. Abagxeki ze-rolmsle ukuba bavumele abashushisi ukuba badlulise ngaphandle kwethuba elibalulekile lokuhlola ubufakazi esiphambawini esiphambazweni. Isigaba sashintsha isimo. I-&rdquo sashintsha isimo.

ICrawford v. Washington (2004): I - Paradigm Shift

Ku . Icala elihilela uMichael Crawford v. Washington [[FLT]], iNkantolo Ephakeme yamisa uhlelo lukaRoberts yabuye yabuyisela incazelo engcono kakhulu ye-Breastation Claus. Icala elihilela uMichael Crawford, owamangalelwa ngokuhlasela futhi wazama ukubulala. Phakathi nokuqulwa kwakhe icala, ukuqulwa kwecala kwadlala umbiko wekhasethi wenkosikazi yakhe, uSylvia, owanikezwa amaphoyisa phakathi nokuphenywa. Ngenxa yelungelo lomshado weWashington &squo; uSylvia akazange afakazele, kodwa umbuso waveza inkulumo yakhe edluliselwe isithakazelo sokujeziswa. Inkantolo yathola inkulumo ethembekile ngaphansi kwe-Robert neyaseNkakhulu. INkakhulu yavuma i-Claysto; ufakazi we-Actreastle wafaka phambi kwethuba, kodwa waze wathola imvume yokuqulwa kwecala.

Ibhalela iningi, uMahluleli uScalia wenqaba ukuhlolwa kokwethembeka kukaRoberts, ememezela ukuthi i-Calquo; i-Clausle’ into eyinhloko iwubufakazi belishwa, i-” nokuthi ukwethembeka yi- &lquamorphous, uma kungasekelwe ngokuphelele, umqondo. i-&rquo; i-Crawford yadinga ukuba izinkantolo zigxile ukuthi inkulumo yi-“ i-specton ” indalo. Uma yayiyi-ustitude, indlela yokuyivuma ngaphandle kwensuntswana enkantolo ebonakala phambi kwecala, yayingekho futhi ummangalelwa ekhona ngaphambi kokuba ihlelwe ngokuphakanyiswa. Lokhu kuveza ubufakazi obuvelele beNkakhulu. I-Active coulton; i-Exton; i-Activespourcerde; kodwa phambi kokuba idlulise, idlulise, isikhulu senkantolo sokuqala, idluliselwe phambi kwecala, isikhulu sembubhisi.

Iposi- Uhlaza: Izinkulumo zokuqinisekisa ukuqulwa kwecala

Imiphumela kaCrawford yadala imboni encane yokukhangisa kulokho ngempela okuyi- “ i-spicionial ” inkulumo. INkantolo yaxoxa nalombuzo ezicabeni eziningana ezilandelayo:

  • Davis v. Washington (2006:] INkantolo yahlukanisa phakathi kwezinkulumo ezenziwa phakathi nokuphenywa kwamaphoyisa okufakazela (isibonelo, ngokuyinhloko ukumisa izenzakalo zesikhathi esidlule zokumangalelwa) kanye nalezo ezingezona ezokuthatha indiva (umzekelo, zenziwe ukuba zikwazi ukubhekana nesimo esiphuthumayo esiqhubekayo). Lapho isisulu esibizwa ngokuthi u-Davis sihlasela, amazwi akhe ayethathwa ukuba angabonisi khono ngoba injongo eyinhloko yayiwukuxazulula isimo esiphuthuma esiqhubekayo. Ngokuhlukile, izinkulumo ezinikezwa amaphoyisa ngemva kokuhlinzwa futhi achazwa amaqiniso adlule zazichazwa.
  • [FLT] Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts (2009): INkantolo yakholelwa ukuthi imibiko yezokucwaninga eveza i-cocaine njengekhonba eliyisiqinisekiso. Abahlaziyi abalungiselela imibiko kumelwe bayifakazele uma bequlwa ngaphandle kokuba ummangalelwa ube nethuba lokuyabela phambili. Lesinqumo sabangela ukuba kube nempikiswano mayelana nomthwalo ezimbonini zobugebengu nesidingo sobufakazi obuphilayo ezihlaziyingiselwe embonini.
  • ukuvuleka kanye. I-New Mexico (2011): INkantolo yanwebela uMelendez-Diaz, iphethe ukuthi uma umhlaziyi we-amensic ebika umphumela wokuhlola igazi lotshwala, umshushisi akanakuthatha indawo yenye umhloli ukuba afakazele ngombiko uma umhlaziyi wangempela owenza ukuhlola engafakazi, ngaphandle kokuba ummangalelwa ube nethuba langaphambili lokunqamleza i-ekanamuzo.
  • Palliams v. Illinois (202): INkantolo eshaqiwe ayinikezanga mbono omkhulu wokuthi izinkulumo zomhlaziyi kuyi-DNA zaziwubufakazi. Isinqumo esiphansi sasiwubufakazi. Umqondo wobuningi, kuMahluleli Alito, wathola ukuthi imibiko enjalo ingangeziswa njengesisekelo sochwepheshe ongufakazi we-’ umbono, ngisho noma izinkulumo ezisezansi ngokwazo ngokwazo zingaba yisiqinisekiso. Lesi sinqumo esiphansi esishiywe eqeshiwe eqeshiwe eqedweni le-DNARyray futhi sihlale siyindawo yomthetho.

Izinhlangothi Ezihlukile Nemingcele Yokubhekana Nezingxabano

INkantolo ePhakeme iqaphele ukuthi i-Breastivation Claus, nakuba inamandla, ayingenamingcele. Ngisho nangaphansi kwe-Crawford place, amahlebezi athile abekwe kahle asindayo ngoba awabhekwa njengobufakazi bemvelo.

  • Izimemezelo ezithiyayo: Izimemezelo ezenziwe ngenkolelo yokufa okuseduze azinakwenzeka, ngisho noma kufakazelwa, ngenxa ye-padigree yabo engokomlando. Iningi leCrawford laphawula ngokucacile ukuthi izimemezelo ezifayo zazihlukile kumthetho ovamile futhi ngokunokwenzeka zisinda ku-Claus.
  • Umphumela ngokungenzi okungalungile: Uma ummangalelwa ethola ubufakazi obungakholeki ngobubi obuthile − njengokwesatshiswa, ukubulala, noma ukuphoqelelwa − ummangalelwa ulahlekelwa amalungelo akhe okubhekana. [[FLT]] Geles v. California [2008] , iNkanto ecacisa ukuthi ummangalelwa kumelwe athathe isinyathelo ngenhloso yokuvimbela ubufakazi ekufakazeni; isenzo esivamile esiphumela ekungabini komthetho asinele.
  • Ibhizinisi namaRecords ka-Preculture (Nontiphitonial): [ Imibhalo ye-Routine egcinelwe izinjongo zokuphatha, njenge-911 yezindonga zokushaya ama-log noma amafomu okuthatha isibhedlela, ngokuvamile ibhekwa njenge-ognomethis, ngoba injongo yayo eyinhloko ayikona ukudala ubufakazi bokumangalelwa. Nokho, imilando eyenziwe ngokukhethekile ukuze kuchazwe izenzakalo, njengemibiko yamaphoyisa, ingafakazelwa.

Umehluko oyinhloko uyaqhubeka ukuthi lamazwi ashiwo emongweni lapho umuntu onengqondo engabona khona kusengaphambili ukusetshenziswa kwawo ekumangalelweni kobugebengu. Le “ inhloso eyisisekelo i ” ukuhlolwa, njengoba kuchazwe kuDavis nasemacala kamuva, kuyi-scread yokuhlaziya ukungqubuzana kwanamuhla.

Izinselele Zanamuhla: Ubuchwepheshe, Ubufakazi Obukude, Nenkathi Yezinombolo

Ikhulu lama-21 liye laletha izinselele ezingakaze zibonwe ngaphambili kuyi-Bristation Claus. Ukwanda kobufakazi bemisebe ye-Foctal . kusuka ku-Fonsensic memone kuya ku-GPS eqopha amarekhodi, izikhungo zezokuxhumana zezezokuxhumana, kanye nokuhlola i-(raises) imibuzo eyinkimbinkimbi ngokuthi ihlanganisani i- “ i-austion ” futhi ukuthi ulwazi olunemishini lunganikeza ubufakazi obuqinisekile yini. Izinkantolo ngokuvamile zikholelwa ukuthi ukwaziswa okuhlelwa yimishini akufakazenziwa yimininingwane ngenxa yokuthi ayiyona inkulumo yomuntu ohlaziyayo (umz.uchwe, umhlazi we-DNA i-electiverography), iziphetho ze-&rciso; iziphetho ze-omthelistum.

Ubufakazi bevidiyo ekude kanye ne-COVID-19

I-COVID-19 umqedazwe ophoqelelwe ukuba asebenzise ubuchwepheshe ngokushesha ukuze alondoloze imisebenzi, kuhlanganise nokusetshenziswa kakhulu kobufakazi bevidiyo kusuka kumapulatifomu anjenge-FOLD. [[FLT]] "Maryland v.Craig[FLT] [1990] [1990] , iNkantolo Ephakeme yagunyaza kakade ukusetshenziswa kwendlela eyodwa evalekile [ukuvikela ufakazi bezingane enhlekeleleni], ilungiselelwe ukuthola indaba edinga isidingo. Inkantolo ikholelwa ukuthi ukubhekana nobukhulu besimo somzimba obungakho. Ngokungakholeki kakhulu, isuke ikhona inselele inselele inselele inselele i-scencessssssments procences; i-pactsssssss procept [Foct:[Foct:] i-Foctive:[127] insect: insensensesssssssssss

Ubufakazi Be - computer Yezinombolo: Ifa LikaWilliams

Enye yezindawo eziphikisana kakhulu i-DNAN imibiko ye- i-DNA, imiphumela ecacile, neminye imiphumela yobuthi bokucwaninga kokucwaninga kobuthi. ngaphandle kokubiza umhlaziyi wokuqala. u-Palliams v. I-Illinois[ isinqumo esishiye izinkantolo eziphansi ngaphandle kwesiqondiso. Ezinye izifunda zikholelwa ukuthi ukushumayeza kumelwe kuveze umhlazisi wokuqala; abanye bavumela isazi esifaka ubufakazi bokuhlola okusemkhaphelweni uma umbiko ngokwawo ungangeniswangabuzwanga ubufakazi. Lokhu kudala igebese-&rco; iNkade kakhulu i-'intebo. [FFF:][5] [5]

Ukuhleleka Nobukhulu Bamazwe

Ubugebengu obusemhlabeni wonke buphoqelele izinkantolo ukuba zicabangele ukuthi iSiphepho sika Claus sisebenza yini emacaleni athathwa izikhulu zangaphandle noma ngaphansi komthetho wangaphandle. United States v. Abu Hazza (2010])[FLT] , isifunda sesibili sikholelwa ukuthi amazwi anikezwa amaphoyisa akwamanye amazwe phakathi nokuphenywa kwamazwe akuqiniseki ngokuzenzekelayo ngaphansi kwe-Crawford uma imicimbi yangaphandle ingaphathwangamehlo e-U.S. ukushushicelelwa. Lendawo ihlala inganeliseki, futhi izinkantolo eziphansi zisebenzisa ukuhlolwa okuyinhloko okuhlola injongo yophenyo zakwamanye amazwe. Ukufakwa kobufakazi obuvela ezinkantolo zempi ezinkweminye izinhlangano zakwamanye amazwe noma amabhangezwane kuveza izimali ezintsha.

UClaus Nelungelo Lezisulu

Okunye ukucindezeleka kwanamuhla kuphathelene [[FLT: 0] amalungelo ezisulu zobugebengu. Uma umntwana noma umuntu omdala osengozini eyisisulu ngaphansi kwezwe nesizwe u-’ imithetho yamalungelo. Izisulu zeCrime ’ amalungelo e-Orse Act (CVRA) ka-2004 kanye nemithetho yesizwe eminingi inikeza izisulu ilungelo lokukhona ekuhlolweni futhi azwe. Uma umntwana noma umuntu omdala osengozini eyisisulu, izinkantolo kumelwe zilinganisele i-’ izimpikiswano eziqondile ngokumelene nenyathiwe i-&squo; inzalo yokugwema inhlekelele. . [FLT] . RAC.[FLT] uhlala umboniso owenziwayo wofakazi bezingane, kodwa ukwandisa izisulu ezikhubazekayo ezika kakhulu noma ezihlungwini ezingokomzwelo. Inkantolo idinga ukuvuma okuthile okuncane, kodwa ukuvumela ukuba kwenziwe ubufakazi obunye obuthi.

Iziqondiso Zesikhathi Esizayo: Impikiswano KaClaus Ekhulwini Lama - 21

Njengoba ubuchwepheshe buqhubeka budlula imfundiso engokomthetho, iSixth Amendment ’ ingxabano yelungelo iyobhekana novivinyo olusha. Ukuhlakanipha okuzenzekelayo sekusetshenziswa kakade ukuveza imibiko, ukuhlaziya, futhi ngisho nokwenza ubufakazi obujulile. Ngubani i-&lquoustistism &squo; ufakazi wobufakazi; lapho uhlelo lwe-Alpha luveza amazwi asetshenziswayo kamuva ngokumelene nommangalelwa? Izinkantolo ziyodinga ukunquma ukuthi izinkulumo ezifingqiwe zemishini azibonisi ngenxa yokuthi azina muntu owedwa amathuluzi e-albacrate, kodwa iziphetho ezidwe yizi ezidonswayo ezisetshenziswa abantu ziyokwahluleke ngaphansi kwe-Crawford &quo; ambit.

Ukuphakama kweqiniso [[FLT: 0] kuveza isimo sobugebengu kusenzeka ngokwenzeka futhi kusetshenziswe ikhamera ehambayo ehamba phambili futhi kuphakamisa imibuzo. Uma ikhamera yendikimba yamaphoyisa ithatha ufakazi u’ amazwi asendaweni, yileyo ewubufakazi? Ngaphansi kwecala lamanje, uma lenkulumo yenziwa ngokuphendula isikhulu se-’ imibuzo phakathi nesimo esiqhubekayo, cishe ayisebenzi embonini. Kodwa uma ikhamera ibamba ufakazi &squo; izinkulumo ezizenzakalelayo, zisebenza ngendlela ehlukile. Inkantolo ephakeme ayikaqondiswe ngokuqondile i-populton, kodwa i-octiveston, kodwa i-octivesss.

Ekugcineni, indlela yezobuzwe esekelwe kuMahluleli Scalia eCrawford iyaqhubeka ibusa iCourt’ i-spect, kodwa ikusasa layo aliqiniseki njengoba amajaji amasha efika ebhentshini. Ezinye izazi zisekela indlela evumelanayo, ethembekile eyovumela izinkantolo ukuba zivume amahemuhemu anokwethenjelwa ngisho nangaphambi kokuba kungene isiphambano. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi incazelo eqinile, yokuqala ivikela abamangalelwa kuhulumeni abakhohliswa. Ukulinganisela kwezombangazwe nokuvumelana kweNkanto engokomthetho kuyokwenza indlela ehambela u-Bhavis Claus emashumi eminyaka ezayo.

Isiphetho: Ifa Eliphilayo Lokuphikisana

Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kwelungelo lokubhekana nofakazi kuyindaba yokuzivumelanisa nesimiso esingenasiphelo: ummangalelwa kumelwe abe nethuba elifanele lokuhlola uhulumeni i-’ ubufakazi. Kusukela eSikhungo seSchwenyeni se-English ku kuya enkantolo yanamuhla, kusukela ku-affidavits ngokubhalwe ngesandla kuya kumanani emibiko yeDNA, u-Claus u-Ecaine useke wazibonakalisa eyisiphephelo esiqinile senkululeko. Ayifuni nje ithuba lokuba khona, kodwa ifuna ithuba elingaphansi kakhulu lokumangalelwa ukuba ikuphikise ubufakazi babo. Njengobuchwepheshe, umphakathi, nohlobo lobugebengu luyaqhubeka luguqula imibiko ye-DNA, izinkantolo kumelwe zihlale ziqaphe ukuqinisekisa ukuthi ukuxabana okulungile akuncishisiwe ngokunelisayo noma ngokunelisayo. Isifundo esikhulu sika-Clauss &quos; umlando udinga ukuqashelwa kwelungelo labo abaqaphile eminyakeni engu-France.

Ukuze uqhubeke ufunda, bheka umbhalo ophelele u-Claus oBambele ku-Cornell LII, iNkantolo Ephakeme &ctsquo; umbono ku Crawford v. Washington [2004] [2004], kanye ne American Bar Association ’s ephikisayo ebufakazini nasemikhawulweni.[FLT:]