Umqondo wokulinganisela amandla kahulumeni uye waqala ngokuphawulekayo emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka, ukuguqula izisekelo zezimiso zentando yeningi zanamuhla. Kusukela kwabavukeli abavukeli abaphoqelela iNkosi uJohn ukuba igqume iMagna Carta ngo-1215 kuya ezimpikiswaneni eziqhubekayo eziphathelene nokungafihliwe nokuqapha, umzabalazo wokucindezela igunya lombuso nokuvikela inkululeko yomuntu kusalokhu kuyisihloko esichaza umlando wezombangazwe. Lesi sihloko sithatha loluhambo, sihlola imibhalo eyisisekelo, ongqondongqondo, izinguquko, nezinhlangano ezamisa ukuqondisa nokulinganisela, ukubusa komthetho, namalungelo abantu abusa idemocrali namuhla.

IMagna Carta: Isisekelo Senkululeko

Isayinwe e-Runnymede ngoJune 1215, iMagna Carta yayingesona isenzo sokufuna ukubusa ngentando yeningi kodwa isivumelwano sokuthula esingokomthetho phakathi kwenkosi engathandwayo nemithetho yayo evukelayo. Nokho izimiso zayo zazizwakala kakhulu kunaleyo mongo oseduze. Okunzima kakhulu, yathola ukuthi inkosi yayingengaphezu komthetho − umqondo wenguquko enkathini yokubusa okuphelele. U-Celauss 39 no-40 kumthetho wokuqala wamemezela ukuthi akukho muntu okhululekile ongaziboshwa, axoshwe, axoshwe, noma athunjwe ngaphandle kwesahlulelo esingokomthetho sontanga yakhe noma umthetho wezwe. Lokhu kwatshala izimbewu zenqubo ye-habespus.

Nakuba iNkosi uJohn yasheshe yalahla umthetho-sisekelo futhi uPapa wawusula, iMagna Carta yabuye yamiswa kaningi kamuva futhi yaba yi-alist yomthetho wesiNgisi. Ithonya layo ladlulela ezibhalweni zamuva njenge-Reance of Right (1628), ne-Nginging Bill of Rights (1689), okuthi amandla engeziwe enkosi futhi asekela ukuphakama kwephalamende. Amandla omthetho womthetho womthetho waseMelika aphefumlelwe futhi awawanikeza amacala abo angaphambili ngokumelene nomqhelelazo wombuso waseBrithani. Namuhla, amakhophi amane okuqala asinda, kanye nezimiso zayo eziyisisekelo zemithetho kahulumeni kumelwe ziboshwe ngomthetho womthetho emhlabeni wonke. [[FLG.] [FLD] [5] [0]

OCelas Ababumba Umthetho Womthetho - sisekelo

  • UClaus 39: Akekho umuntu okhululekile oyobanjwa, aboshwe, noma aphucwe ifa ngaphandle kokwahlulela kontanga yakhe okungokomthetho noma ngomthetho wezwe.
  • UClaus 40: Akekho esiyomthengisela yena, akekho esingamphika noma sihlehlise noma silungise ubulungisa.
  • UClaus 12: Intela noma usizo (amatheksi) lwalungakhokhwa kuphela ngeseluleko esivamile sendawo, ukugunyazwa kwentela kwasekuqaleni ngemvume.
  • UClaus 61: Inkulumo yokulondeka evumela ikomiti yezinduna ezingu - 25 ukuba ilawule inkosi — i - ex - invilo engavamile egunyeni eliphethe.

Ithonya Labacabanga Ngokukhanyiselwa

Ekhulwini le - 17 nele - 18 kwaba nenguquko engokokuhlakanipha eyabekela inselele ngokuyisisekelo ilungelo laphezulu lamakhosi futhi yanikeza izisekelo zefilosofi zentando yeningi yanamuhla.

UJohn Locke Namalungelo Emvelo

Kuye uTreatisess of Government (1689), uJohn Locke wagomela ngokuthi bonke abantu bazalwa benamalungelo emvelo ekuphileni, inkululeko, nempahla. Injongo kahulumeni, waphikisa, ukuvikela lamalungelo; uma uhulumeni eba ebhubhisayo, abantu banelungelo lokuwugumbula. Imibono ka-Thomas Jefferson ngokuqondile eSivumelweni senkululeko futhi yaguqula isiko lomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Umbono wakhe wesivumelwano sezenhlalo (ukuthi lapho izakhamuzi zivuma khona ngokunganaki ukubuthelwa ukuvikela amalungelo abo.)

UMontesquieu Nokuhlukana Kwamandla

Baron de Montesquieu, Umoya woMthetho [1748], waphikisa ngokwesimiso ukuthi amandla okugxilisa kunoma yimuphi umuntu noma indikimba aholela ebushiqela. Wahlongoza uhulumeni ukuba abe amagatsha amathathu: umthetho wemithetho, umphathi, nokwahlulela, ngamunye okwazi ukuhlola amanye. Lomfanekiso wesithuthi wathathwa ngokuqondile ngabasunguli baseMelika futhi uhlala uyisilinganisi somthetho wedemokratistiki. UMontesquie wagcizelela futhi ukubaluleka kwemithetho ebonisa amasiko nesimo sezulu nesizwe esibonisa ukuphakama kwezwe.

UJean-Jacques Rousseau NoJenene Wentando

Rousseau’s IContract yezeNtlalo (1762]) yathuthukisa umqondo wokuthi igunya elingokomthetho lezombangazwe lisekelwe ekuthandeni kwabantu ngokweqembu. Waphikisa ngokuthi abantu badela inkululeko yabo engokwemvelo ngenxa yenkululeko yomphakathi ngaphansi kukahulumeni oveza ukuthi "intando yentando yeningi" nakuba imiqondo kaRousseau iye yachazwa kokubili eziqondisweni zentando yeningi nezobuphoqeqeshane, ukugcizelela kwakhe ebukhosini obuthandwayo kugqugquzela inguquko yaseFrance futhi kamuva izinhlangano zentando yeningi. Umqondo wakhe wokuthi imithetho kumelwe isebenze ngokufanayo kuzo zonke izakhamuzi ngokwezimiso ezingokomthetho.

Ukuvukela KwaseMelika: Isibonelo Esisha Sokubusa

I-American Revolution (1775-171783) kwakuyindlela yokuqala eyinhloko yokusetshenziswa kwezimiso zokukhanyiselwa ekudalweni kwesizwe esisha. ISimemezelo se-Independence (1776) sawanxusa ngokuqondile amalungelo emvelo kaLocke futhi samemezela ukuthi ohulumeni bathola "amandla abo alungile ngokuvunyelwa abalawulwayo." Izihloko ezalandela zeConfederation zabonakala zibuthakathaka kakhulu, zaholela ekukhishweni kwe-U.S. Constitution ngo-1787/a incwajana eyakha uhulumeni oqinile kodwa olinganiselwe.

Isimiso somthetho-sisekelo sokuhlola nokulinganisela saklanyelwa ukuvimbela noma iliphi igatsha ekubuseni. Umongameli angawubeka umthetho, uKhongolo-kahulumeni angafaka i-presidente, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme ingagadla imithetho njengamandla angahlangeneyo amiswe Marbury v. Madison (1871] [1861]). ISigqebhene samalungelo abantu singanezela isivikelo esiqondile kuhulumeni oyisisulu, kuhlanganise nenkululeko yokukhuluma, inkolo, ingqungquthela, kanye nelungelo lokuphatha izikhali, futhi ivikele ukuphenya okungenangqondo, ukuzihlobisa, ukuququmba nokuzingela, nokuzilimaza, nokujengalawuleki.

Amaphaphu e-Federalist, abhalwa ngu-Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, noJohn Jay, anikeza isivikelo esiqinile sokwakhiwa komthetho-sisekelo. UFederali No. 10 waphikisa ngokuthi irepublic enkulu ingalawula izingozi ze-codemocism kune-democracy encane, kuyilapho u-Federalist No. 51 wachaza indlela ukwahlukana kwemibuso okungaqinisekisa ngayo ukuthi ukulangazelela izifiso zentando yegazi kuqeda isifiso. [[FLT:] Funda umbhalo ogcwele we-Federalist Papers

Izici Eziyinhloko Zesibonelo Somthetho - sisekelo WaseU.S.

  • Ukuhlukana kwemibuso emagatsheni amathathu alinganayo
  • Isishaya - mthetho saseBidameral (Indlu NeSigele) sinikeza iziphetho zangaphakathi
  • Ubumbano lwegunya elihlukanisa ohulumeni besizwe nohulumeni
  • Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kwenza izinkantolo ziqede imithetho engekho emthethweni
  • Inqubo yokuchithwa kwemithetho edinga ukuvelela ukuze kushintshwe imithetho eyisisekelo

INguquko YaseFrance Nokuphakama Kwamalungelo Abantu

INguquko yaseFrance (1789-1799) yaqubuka ngenjongo yokususa [[FLT: 0] i-régime yamalungelo ombuso aphelele namalungelo ombuso. Isimemezelo samalungelo abantu aphelele. ISimemezelo samalungelo abantu nesabantu, esamukelwa ngoAugust 1789, samemezela ukuthi "abantu bayazalwa futhi bahlala bekhululekile futhi belingana elungelweni." Sagomela ukuthi ubukhosi buhlala esizweni, lowo mthetho uyisibonakaliso sentando yeningi, nokuthi zonke izakhamuzi zinelungelo lokuhlanganyela ngokuqondile kuhulumeni noma ngabameleli.

UBufakazi baqinisekisa inkululeko yokukhuluma, yokunyathelisa, nenkolo, kanye nokucabanga ukuthi umsulwa nokuvikelwa ekuboshweni okungenazimiso. Lezizimiso zabangela izinhlangano zokuvukela ezalandelayo kulo lonke elaseYurophu nase-Latin America. Nokho, inguquko ngokushesha yaphumela ekuvukeleni kwenguquko yokuBusa kwephekula ngaphansi kwe-Robespier, ibonakalisa izingozi zokungalawulwa kwemibuso elawulayo. Ubushiqela bukaNapoleon nombuso wentando yeningi babonisa indlela okungabhidlikiselwa ngayo kalula. Naphezu kokubhikisha, ifa lalesiSimemezelo sabhekana nokuvukela okuthathelwana kwenguquko kwezelelwe ukubusa kwekhulu le-19 futhi ekugcineni sathonya iSimemezelo Sesizwe Senkululeko Yobuntu ngo-1948.

AmaGirondin aphikisana namaJacomanin: Ukushikashikeka Okungaphezu Kwemingcele

Iminyaka yokuqala yenguquko yaba nempi yezikhulu phakathi kwamaGirondin, athanda ukubusa komthetho-sisekelo noma uhulumeni olinganiselwe, kanye namaJacomanin aphikisayo, asekela ukudunyiswa kwamadoda embulunga yonke nokubekwa kwemithetho. Ikomiti kaJacobins ye-Public Safety yabekela inkululeko yomphakathi eminingi egameni lokuvikela inguquko, ibonisa ukuthi ngisho nohulumeni abadumile bangaba nonya ngaphandle kwemingcele yezinhlangano.

Ikhulu Le - 19: Ukwandisa Imisebenzi Yentando Yeningi

Ikhulu le - 19 leminyaka laliyinkathi yokwanda kancane kancane kodwa okujulile kokuhlanganyela kwentando yeningi nemingcele engokomthetho - sisekelo ekwakheni amandla kulo lonke elaseYurophu naseMelika.

EUnited Kingdom, uchungechunge lweziNguquko Zemisebenzi (11832, 1867, 1884) lwanwetshwa ngokuqhubekayo ukunqatshelwa kwemithetho yamadoda amaningi, kuyilapho inhlangano yeTchardist yayifuna ukuba amadoda athathelwe ipesenti namaqembu ayimfihlo. Ukuqedwa kobugqila eBrithani (1833), ne-United States (1865 ngemva kweMpi Yombango) kwamelela ukunqatshelwa okukhulu kokuziphatha nokungokomthetho emandleni kahulumeni phezu kwabantu ngabanye. I-13, 14th, neZiphendulo zeshumi elinesihlanu ze-U. Umthetho-Constitution yabuqeda ubugqila, yaqinisekisa isivikelo esifanayo ngaphansi komthetho, futhi amalungelo okuvota noma ngabe iliphi ikhulu leminyaka.

ELatin America, izinhlangano zokuzibusa ezagqugquzelwa yiZinguquko zaseMelika naseFrance zaholela ekumisweni kwamarepublic anomthetho-mthetho obhaliwe, nakuba abaningi babelwisana ne-caudillismo ne-pholiast. EYurophu, iZinguquko zango - 1848 zasakaza imfuneko yokumiswa kwemithetho-sisekelo, inkululeko yomphakathi, kanye nokuzinqumela kwesizwe, ukutshala imbewu yokuhlanganiswa kwentando yeningi kamuva emazweni anjengeFrance, iJalimane, ne-Italy.

Ukwanda kwezinhlangano zezisebenzi kanye nezinhlangano zezenhlalakahle kwaveza imfuno entsha yamalungelo ezomnotho nenhlalakahle yezenhlalo, kwandisa umqondo wemingcele kahulumeni ohlanganisa isivikelo emandleni enkampani kanye. Abacabangi njengoJohn Stuart Mill, ku-Liberty[ [1859]] [1859], kwaveza isimiso esilimazayo, ukuthi ukuphela kwesizathu sokuvimbela inkululeko yomuntu ukuthi inqande ukulimala kwabanye.

Ikhulu Lama - 20: Izinhlangano Zembulunga Yonke Zentando Yeningi

Ikhulu lama-20 labona ukwanda okungakaze kubonwe kokubusa kwentando yeningi kanye nezinxushunxushu ezisabekayo zobushiqela. Umphumela weMpi Yezwe I wabona ukuwa kombuso we-Austria-Hunglian, i-Jalimane, i-Ottoman, neRussia nokuvela kwamarepublic amasha. INhlangano yeZizwe, nakuba inephutha, yamelela umzamo wokuqala wokumisa imingcele yombuso ukuze ilondoloze ukuthula.

Ukuwohloka Okukhulu Kwezomnotho nokudlondlobala kobufasci nobukhomanisi kwaholela ezinhlotsheni ezintsha zamandla kahulumeni, kokubili ukuvumela ukusetshenziswa kabi kwamalungelo amakhulu kanye (ebuthweni elibusa ngentando yeningi) nezinhlangano zenhlala - kahle ezakha imibuso eyayicindezela inkululeko engokomnotho kuyilapho iqhubeka yandisa amalungelo ezenhlalo. UkuQothulwa Kwesizwe neMpi Yezwe II kwashaqisa izwe ukuba liqaphele ukuthi ubukhosi basekhaya abunakuvikelwa ngokuphelele (8) amalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke.

IZizwe Ezihlangene zasungulwa ngo- 1945 zinomthetho - sisekelo owenziwe amalungu amazwe akhuthaza "amalungelo abantu nenkululeko eyisisekelo yabo bonke." i-Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) eyamukelwa ngo-1948, yamisa uhlu olubanzi lwezindaba zomphakathi, zezombangazwe, zezomnotho, zezenhlalo, nezempucuko. Nakuba ingagunyazi, yaba isisekelo somthetho wamalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke, ithonya inqwaba yemithetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho- sisekelo nezivumelwano. Ukufunda umbhalo ogcwele weUDHR[FLT].

Ukukhohliswa Nemibuso Emisha

Inkathi yangemva kwempi futhi yaba nokususwa okusheshayo kwe-Asia, i-Afrika, ne-Caribbean. Amazwe amaningi asanda kuzibusa amukela imithetho yentando yeningi, nakuba ukungahleleki kwezombangazwe, ukubuthwa kwebutho lezempi, nomthetho owodwa walandela. Ukuguqukela kwezwe laseNdiya embusweni wentando yeningi ngempumelelo ngo 1947.

Impi Yomshoshaphansi Nokulwela Amalungelo

Phakathi neMpi Yomshoshaphansi, iUnited States neSoviet Union zombili zathi zisekela inkululeko kuyilapho ngokuvamile zisekela imibuso ebusa ngempoqo. Umzabalazo wamalungelo ezakhamuzi eUnited States (1950sä1960s) waphoqelela uhulumeni ukuba abophe imingcele engokomthetho ngokumelene nobandlululo lwezinga likahulumeni, iphethe eSivumelwaneni sama - Covil Rights Act (1964) kanye neSivumelwano sama - Rights (1965), izinhlangano eziphikisayo eMpumalanga Yurophu, njenge-Unitarianty ePoland naseCharter 77 eCzechoslovaquia, zaphoqa uhulumeni bamaKhomanisi ukuba bahloniphe imithetho yabo siqu kanye nezivumelwano zenkululeko yabantu yomhlaba wonke.

Ikhulu Lama - 21: Izinselele Nezinguquko

Kulelikhulu lama - 21, ukuziphendukela kwemingcele emandla kahulumeni kuyaqhubeka phakathi kwezinselele ezintsha. Ukushintsha kwezimiso zemishini kuye kwenza ohulumeni bakwazi ukuqoqa ukwaziswa okuningi ezakhamuzini zabo, babangela ukukhathazeka ngokuqapha, ukuzifihla, namathuba okuxhashazwa. Abahlaziyi nabashisekeli baye badalula izinhlelo zokuqapha ngobuningi, bebhebhethekisa izimpikiswano ngokulinganisela phakathi kwenhlala - kahle yesizwe nenkululeko yomphakathi.

Izinhlangano ezisekela ukubusa nezokubusa ziye zabekela inselele inqubo yentando yeningi ekhululekile emazweni amaningi, kusukela eHungary nasePoland kuya e-United States naseBrazil. Abaholi baye bahlasela abaphathi bejaji abazimele, abezindaba abakhululekile, kanye nokwethembeka kokhetho okulawulayo. () nokho umphakathi womphakathi, iziphepho zotshani, nezinhlangano zomhlaba wonke ziyaqhubeka zihlehlisa imingcele.

Ubuchwepheshe obusha bunikeza namathuluzi okulandisa: ukwaziswa okuvulekile kukahulumeni, ukuvota, nokuqoqwa kwezokuxhumana kwenza izakhamuzi zikwazi ukuqondisa nokuhlanganyela ekubuseni ngokuqondile. Ukuphakama kwezinkantolo zomhlaba wonke, njengeNkantolo yeSigebengu sezizwe zonke, nezimiso zamalungelo abantu zesifunda (iNkantolo Yamalungelo Abantu yase-Europe, i-International Court of Human, i-American Court) kunikeza izinkundla lapho abantu bengabeka khona icala lokwephula amalungelo.

Ukuzihlukanisa Kwabantu Ngezinombolo Nokwanda Kukahulumeni

  • Imbubulo kaEdward Snowden ka 2013 ngezinhlelo zokuhlola i-NSA yabangela impikiswano yembulunga yonke nezinguquko ezithile.
  • I-European Union's General Data Protection Regation (GDPR) yakha izivikeleko eziqinile zemininingwane yomuntu siqu, ilinganisela ukuqoqwa kombuso ne-ongine.
  • Ubuchwepheshe bokubhala ukukopisha benza kube nokuxhumana okulondekile kodwa futhi kubhekene nezidingo zikahulumeni zokuvimbela imishayo.

Ukusakaza I - Populism Nokuncipha Kwemibuso Ebusayo

  • Izinguquko zoMthetho - sisekelo eHungary nasePoland ziye zamisa amandla amakhulu, zanciphisa inkululeko yokwahlulela, futhi zabeka imingcele kwemithombo yezindaba.
  • E - United States, ukuhlaselwa komthetho wokhetho nokungakhethi koMnyango Wezobulungisa kuye kwavivinya ukuqina kwezindlela zokuhlola nokulinganisela.
  • Imithambo ye-rasroot njenge-May yabesifazane, Black Live Matter, nokubhikisha kwe-pro-democracy eHong Kong kubonisa ukuthi izakhamuzi zihlala ziqaphile.

Isiphetho: Uhambo Oluqhubekayo

Ukuziphendukela kwemingcele emandla kahulumeni kuwuhambo oluqhubekayo olubonisa izindinganiso ezishintshayo zomuntu kanye nezinhloso. Kusukela kumabharon e-Runnymede kuya kwabashisekeli banamuhla bamanani, umzabalazo wokuqinisekisa ukuthi igunya likhonza abantu kunokuba libabuse. Akukho mbhalo noma inhlangano enikeza isivikelo esihlala njalo; isizukulwane ngasinye kumelwe sivuselele ukuzimisela ukubusa umthetho, ukwahlukana kwemibuso, namalungelo ayisisekelo.

Njengoba sibheka esikhathini esizayo, ubuchwepheshe obuvelayo, ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu, kanye nezinselele zokubusa kwembulunga yonke kuyodinga ukucabanga okusha mayelana nendlela yokulawula amandla (okubili okulawula umphakathi nangasese). Izimiso eziye zasungulwa emakhulwini ayisishiyagalombili eminyaka ziseyisiqondiso sethu esingcono kakhulu: ukuthi akekho umuntu ongaphezulu komthetho, ukuthi ukuvuma kwababuswayo kuwukuphela kwesisekelo esingokomthetho segunya, nokuthi wonke umuntu unegunya elingokwemvelo okungekho hulumeni ongase amelanise ngokulunga.