Imvelaphi Nezisekelo Ezingokwefilosofi

Umqondo wokuhlola nokulinganisela awuzange uvele ngokugcwele eMhlanganweni woMthetho-sisekelo. Wamelela ukumiswa kwamakhulu amaningi eminyaka emibono yezombangazwe nokuhlangenwe nakho okusebenzayo. Ithonya eliqondiswe ngqo lesazi sefilosofi saseFrance uBaron de Montesquieu, esingu 1748 esisebenza Umoya woMthetho waphikisa ukuthi inkululeko yezombangazwe yayidinga ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso kahulumeni phakathi kwe-crountact, isikhulu, nemisebenzi yokwahlulela. UMontesquieu wayekholelwa ukuthi amandla agxilise kunoma yimuphi umuntu oyedwa noma umzimba ngokungenakugwenywa ayengaholela ekubushelaneni. Imibono yakhe yayisakazwa kabanzi futhi iphikiswana nabantu abaye bezwananezinto zokuxhaphaza igunya lasebukhosini ngaphansi kwenkosi ngaphansi kwenkosi uGeorge III.

Abakhi futhi bathatheka kakhulu esikweni lomthetho-sisekelo waseBrithani, naphezu kokuba babesanda kulwa impi neBrithani. Isimiso saseBrithani sase siqale sabonakalisa ukwahlukana okunzima phakathi kweBhodi (ukubulala), iPhalamende (impicabadala), nezinkantolo (izezekomiti), kodwa amaBritane (izekomiti), ashiya imithetho engokomthetho ecacile imingcele ebhaliwe ididane, futhi amakoloni ayehlukumezekile lapho iPhalamende lingenela eqenjini lamazwe azimele nalapho iSikhundle simile. Abahleli be-parlamenoloji babefuna ukuhlanganisa lezi zihlukana ezibhalwe phansi, benza igatsha ngalinye likwazi ukuhlukanisa nokubambisana ngokucacile nokubambisana kuyilapho livumela izindlela zokumelana nokungenela kwamanye amakolo.

Izwe lalo ngokwalo lanikeza indawo yokucwaninga kahulumeni ohlukene. Ikoloni ngalinye lalinombusi (omisiwe noma okhethiwe), isishaya-mthetho se-bimadral, nesimiso senkantolo, kanye nemizabalazo yamandla eyaqala izakhiwo zabafundi bakhona izingozi zegunya elingalawulwa. Isizukulwane sokuziphendukela kwemvelo safunda namarepublic asendulo anjengeRoma, ayenesimiso esiyinkimbinkimbi sokuhlola phakathi kwabalawuli, abahlali, ababosheli, nemihlangano edumile. Ngesikhathi uMthetho-sisekelo wabuthelwa ngo-1787, isimiso semibuso ehlukene ngemishini yokwakha samukelwa kabanzi, nakuba abaphicosheki bamapulani babephikisana kakhulu.

Umsebenzi Womthetho - sisekelo

UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., wasayinwa ngo-1787 futhi wagunyazwa ngo-1788, wasakaza amandla kahulumeni phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu alinganayo. ISiphakamiso Ngamisa i-bidameral Congress enamandla okulawula, intela, nokumemezela impi. ISiphakamiso II senza isikhulu esisodwa esinegunya lokuphoqelela imithetho, siqhube isimiso sangaphandle, futhi siqondise amabutho ahlomile. ISiphakamiso III samisa amandla azimele okuchaza imithetho kanye nezimpikiswano. Kodwa abafaki be-freadm abazange bamise ekuhlukaniseni. [bakhele] isimiso sokulawulana, esichazwe ngokudumile nguJakobe [FLD:] u-No.[FLT][FLD] [51]

Izinqumo eziqondile ziningi futhi zihlolwe. Umongameli angawukhipha umthetho odluliswa yi-Congress, kodwa uMkhandlu ungawudlulisa lowo mbuso kanye nezinga lamathathu amabili ezindlini zombili. ISishaya-mthetho kumelwe siqinisekise ukumiswa komongameli egatsheni lejaji eliphethe futhi kumelwe afake izivumelwano ngokuvota okunesithathu. Isivumelwano siphethe amandla esikhwama futhi singawususa umongameli, umongameli oyisekela, namajaji ombuso nge-"speag, ukufumbathisa, noma amanye amacala aphakeme kanye nama-pardeary angenawo." i-judiary, nakuba igatsha elibuthakathaka kakhulu emagameni okuvota (akulawula inkemba noma izikhwama), lingashaya imithetho nezenzo zezempatho zeze zezentethensi yemithetho.

Lolu hlelo lwaluklanyelwe ukuvimbela noma iliphi igatsha elilodwa ukuba lingabuswa. Njengoba uMadison aphikisa, isimiso saqinisekisa ukuthi iminyango ehlukene ngeke "ihlukaniswe kakhulu kangangokuba ingalawuliwe umthetho-sisekelo ngomunye nomunye" kunalokho, amagatsha ayeyohlotshaniswa afakelwe futhi ahlanganiswe ukuze anikeze ukulawula komthetho-sisekelo ngamunye phezu kwelinye." Ukugqamile kwalo lomklamo kuxhomeke ekuzilolongeni kwayo: amagatsha azimele ayazisizana kakhulu ukuze amelane nokuphambana ngelinye igatsha, agcine ukulingana kwalo lonke.

Izimpikiswano EMhlanganweni Womthetho - sisekelo

Ukwakheka kokugcina kwesimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela kwavela ekuyekethiseni okukhulu emhlanganweni we-Philadelphia. Izifunda ezinkulu zazifuna ukumelelwa okusekelwe ezakhamuzini; izifunda ezincane zazifuna ukumelelwa okulinganayo. Ukuhleba okukhulu kwadala isishaya-mthetho sendlu ye-bimear neNdlu Ye-Adreaders elingana nezakhamuzi neSigele esivota isifunda ngasinye. Isakhiwo segatsha esiphethe sasingenye impikiswano enkulu. Ezinye izihambeli zazisaba ukuthi umphathi oyedwa uzoba yinkosi; ezinye zathi isikhulu esingumphakathi singenza isiphithiphithiphithi. Isinqumo sokubeka igunya lesikhulu kumongameli oyedwa, esikhethwe yi-Elenametailmel College, ekhethwe abantu ngokuqondile.

Ngisho nangemva kokuhlawuliswa koMthetho-sisekelo, ama-Antifederali aqhubeka ephikisa ngokuthi amasheke ayengenamandla. Ayesaba amongameli ezempi, izigele zombuso, negunya lejaji likahulumeni emithetho kahulumeni. Lokhu kwaholela ekuthatheni iBill of Rights ngo-1791, eyabeka imingcele eyengeziwe emandleni kahulumeni, ikakhulukazi ngokuphathelene nenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye nenqubo efanele. Ukushintsha kwemithetho yokuqala kwezigebengu kwanezela ungwele yezokuhlola ngokuchaza izindawo lapho uhulumeni ungayiphazamisangangeni, kwakha indawo yamalungelo avikelekile okumelwe wonke amagatsha ahlonipheke.

Uvivinyo Lokuqala Nezenzakalo Zangaphambili

Uhulumeni omusha wabhekana nezinselele ezavivinya imingcele yomthetho-sisekelo wawo. Phakathi neminyaka embalwa nje, isimiso sokuhlola samiswa ngokuqinile ngecala eliyingqophamlando Marbury v. Madison [1803]. UWilliam Marbury, umise uMongameli John Adams, unoNobhala wezwe wezwe uJacords ngenxa yokuhluleka ukukhipha ukuthunywa kwakhe. UJaji omkhulu uJohn Marshall, wabhalela iNkantolo Ephakeme, wanquma ukuthi nakuba iMarhrion yayinelungelo lokuthunywa, iNkantolo yayingeke ihlele ngenxa yokunikezwa kwayo amandla okunikezwa amandla (umthetho owe-13 weSiphaka sangonyaka ka-1789). Umeluyedwa umongameli wesizwe, waveza umbono wemithetho engcono kakhulu echaza imithetho ehlangene nengamele ukuchazwa yiSiphakathi segatsha (R464).

Olunye uvivinyo lokuqala lwavela kuMongameli Thomas Jeffersons osebenzisa amandla aphezulu. Jefferson, isazi sokwakha esiqinile esasixwayise ngokuphambana nabaqondisi abaphethe, noma kunjalo sagunyaza iLouisiana Purchase ngo-1803 ngaphandle kwegunya elicacile lomthetho-sisekelo (uMthetho-sisekelo awuniki mandla kamongameli ukuba athole indawo entsha). UJefferson wavuma ukuthi ukuthenga kwakuwukuthengwa okungaphezulu kodwa kwakukuthethelela njengesilinganiso esidingekile. Kamuva uMkhandlu wagunyaza isivumelwano futhi wasekela ukuthengwa, ebonisa ukwanda kwesikhulu esiyinhloko esincitshiswe imvume yemithetho yemithetho.

Umongameli u-Andrew Jackson waqhubekisela phambili amandla obumongameli ngokusebenzisa iveto ngonya. Omongameli bangaphambili babefake izikweletu ezikhokhwayo kuphela ngezizathu zomthetho-mthetho, kodwa uJackson wakhipha i-charte yeSecond Bank yase-United States ngo-1832 ngenxa yokuthi wabheka ukuthi "i-constitual" ngokwemithetho yemithetho. Wamemezela ngodumo: "UMongameli ungummeleli oqondile wabantu baseMelika," ephethe umyalo wokwahlulela kwakhe owenza ukuba kufane neyaseBhunga. UJacksonsson wathatha umbono omkhulu wamandla wawawuguqula wawuguqula wawenza waba yi-chezungemuva umthetho wesikhalindo, isimiso ababezosebenzisa ngaso umthetho ababengavumelani umthetho ezindaweni ezingokomthetho.

Ukwanda Nezinselele Ekhulwini Le - 19

Impi ka-1812 yahlola amagatsha aphethe imibuso yempi. UMongameli uJames Madison, umklami oyinhloko woMthetho-sisekelo, wazithola engumphathi-nhloko phakathi nempi neGreat Britain. Impi yayingathandwa kakhulu eNew England, futhi uMkhandlu waphikisana ngonya ukuthi umongameli wayengakwazi yini ukuqoqa amabutho kahulumeni. Lemibuzo iphinde ibangele ukulwa kwempi eholela eHartford Convention, lapho izihambeli zobuFrederation zaxoxa khona nge-secession. Impi yaphela khona ngesivumelwano seGhent yabuyisela isimo kodwa yashiya imibuzo engaphenduliwe ngemingcele yamandla kamongameli ngesikhathi sezehlakalo. Lemibuzo yayizophinde iqhumise ubudlova phakathi nempi yomphakathi.

IMpi Yombango yaba nokwanda okukhulu kakhulu kwempi egunyaza amandla abusayo emlandweni waseMelika kuze kube leloqophelo. UMongameli uAbraham Lincoln wathatha izinyathelo eziningi ezeqisayo imingcele yomthetho-sisekelo: wabeka icebo le-habeas corpus, isithibed of Sowestern, iscript (isenzo sempi esingagunyaza iSishaya - mthetho kuphela), wandisa ibutho nebutho lasemanzini ngaphandle kokungquzulana, futhi wakhipha i-Emancipration Proclation njengendlela yezempi ekhulula izigqila emazweni avukelayo. ULincoln waphikisa ukuthi lezi zinyathelo zazidingekile ukuze kulondolozwe i - Union futhi ukuthi uMthetho-mthetho ukuvumela imibuso ebanzi okungavunyelwe phakathi nempi. Nokho, ngemva kwempi. Umongameli we-Congresmust Republics wakhipha u-Andrian Prialsonsonson waze waphula iH.

Ukwakhiwa kabusha ngokwako kwaba nomzabalazo phakathi kwamagatsha aphethe amagatsha aphethe uhulumeni waseNingizimu. UKhomulo wadlulisa i-Extoncts abaphathi bakaJohnsons rhito, ebeka umthetho wempi endaweni eyayiyiNkantolo ehlangene. INkantolo Ephakeme yahlala ingekho ezimpini zokulungisa izimpikiswano, yenqaba ukubukeza amacala ayinhloko anjengo isigaba se-Milligan[[FLD] [FLD] [1866], eyayiye yahlasela ukuqulwa kwezelelwa kwezempi lapho izinkantolo zezempi zazisebenza khona, kodwa isinqumo sasingaphoqelelwe neze. Ngasekupheleni kwekhulu le-19 leminyaka sazibonela ukuphakama kweSivumelo sombuso esinamandla ([Impinga)" inkathi elinganiselwe yeSihlalo sika-Thomasson Reederversed Reader kusetshenziswa imithetho ye-procementsss, kusekela se-Grenceyneryle, kusetshenziswa i-Generner ku-oner, kusetshenziswa kakhulu kwe-

Ikhulu Lama - 20: IMpi Entsha, Impi Yezwe, Newatergate

Ikhulu lama-20 ngokuyisisekelo lalungisa ukulinganisela kwamandla, ikakhulukazi ngenxa yokusekela igatsha eliphethe. Ukuwohloka Okukhulu Kwezomnotho kwadala inhlekelele yesizwe eyafuna isinyathelo esisheshayo, esiyinhloko. UMongameli uFranklin D. Roosevelt wasungula iNew Develop, uhlelo olugcwele lwempumuzo kahulumeni, ukululama, nokuguqula. Umbuso wanika igatsha igunya elingakaze libonwe egatsheni, ukusungula izinhlangano ezintsha ezifana ne-National Recoverance Ad Administration kanye ne-Acoricurical Administration. INkantolo Yomthetho Ephakeme yaqala ukuhlasela izinhlelo eziningana ze-New Fareal Refection Act, kuhlanganise ne-National Indueverace Act [FLD:] [Rose-Rose] kaningi] uvule i-Rocertivet procertivessss "ult.[allst , i-umphast , ezindaweni ezingaphezulu kakhulu zeNkakhulu, izikhulu, iNka, futhi yabonakala kakhulu kwemi

IMpi Yezwe II yaqhubeka yandisa amandla kamongameli. IRoosevelt yakhipha u-Endrect Experity 906, igunyaza ukufakwa kwaMajapani, leyo iNkantolo Ephakeme eyayisekela kaKorematsu v. iUnited States [19444]. Impi futhi yabona ukusungulwa kwe-Manhattan Project nokusetshenziswa kwamabhomu e-athomu agunyazwe ngumongameli. Ngemva kwempi, uMongameli uHarry Truman wayala ukuphamba izigaxa zensimbi phakathi nempi yezisebenzi zomsebenzi ukuze zilondoloze ukukhiqiniswa kwempi yase-Korea. INkantolo yenze phansi lesi sigaba esiphansi, lapho ingekho ukugunyazwa kwegunyazwa yigunya eliphansi.[FLT] V.[5] [FT] [195] [192], ukumiswa kwemithetho ephakeme, lapho i-Rogs.[19]

I-Vietnam War nehlazo leWatergate zabonisa ukuthi kungenzeka ukuba i-Reconsount ye-Presidentiant kanye nezinqubo zokuyihlola. Omongameli uLyndon Johnson noRichard Nixon bandisa ukuhileleka kwaseMelika eNingizimu-ntshona Asia ngaphandle kokumemezela okungokomthetho kwempi, bethembele eTonkin Gulf Resolution (1964). Lapho impi iqala ukungathandeki, iSishaya umthetho weSigqi sango seMpi sika-193791 kuMongameli Nixons demon, ifuna umongameli ukuba azise iSishayamthetho phakathi namahora angu-48 okufaka amabutho ahlomile futhi abeke imvume engokomthetho yezinsuku ezingu-60 ngaphandle kwemvume yokumiswa kwe-Rommocracy. Kwabe kulandelana uhulumeni weSishaya-Democratic Committee, futhi wahlanganisa i-Hulumente, kanye ne-Hulumente, ngokushesha kwe-om, kanye ne-Actives ngokomthetho we-od ngokomthetho, kanye ne-og.

Inkathi Yanamuhla: Ukuhlaziywa Kwelanga Nokumiswa Kwenhlangano

Kusukela ekupheleni kwekhulu lama-20 leminyaka, isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela siye sabhekana nezingcindezi ezintsha ezibangelwa ukuvinjelwa okukhulu kwe-CFUT kanye nokuvela kwenkolelo-lwazi ye- "unication". Lenkolelo ikholelwa ukuthi umongameli unegunya eliphelele phezu kwegatsha eliphethe, kuhlanganise namandla okususa noma isiphi isikhulu esiyoke silawule futhi singayinaki imithetho evimbelayo. Abameli bazo zombili baye bandisa ukusetshenziswa kwemithetho yokulawula ngaphandle kweSishaya- sivumelwano, kusukela ku-Bill Clintons iziyalezo zokuvikela indawo ezungezile kuGeorge W. Izikhulu zamabutho zempi futhi zivinjelwe, ukushaya i-Back Obamas Deferctive Action for Childoms of Childings (AC), i-oult, futhi izikhulu ezivinjelwe izikhulu ze-Choult, izikhulu ze-Cults, i-Breams ezimele ukuvingcelweni ezizimele, izikhulu ze-B. futhi ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezizimele, izikhulu zikahulumeni, ziye zabangela ukukhondla izikhulu ukuba izikhulu ze-

I-parisan poligation iqedise ukuhlola okungokwesiko kweseluleko nemvume. Ukugunyazwa kweJaji kuye kwaba kwezombangazwe kakhulu, futhi kunezimo ezivame ukugcinwa eNdlu yeGawulayo izinyanga eziningi. Ukwenqaba ukuzwa uMerick Garland, kulandelwa ukuqinisekiswa okusheshayo kukaNeil Gormoth no-Amy Coney Barrett ngokusebenzisa "ukhetho lwezenyuk" ukuqeda i-Diacbuster yeNkantolo Ephakeme, ukukhuphula umbono wejajidiary njengomdlali we-Rocel. Ngokufanayo, i-Congress iye yaphendukela kakhulu emandleni okungamela amandla okungamela njengesixhobo se-6: ukunqabela kukaBill Clinton, uDonald (Trice), nophenyo ku-Joe Biden, kuye kwenza ukuphenya kwendlela yokuhlola ithuluzi elivamile, i-fuledie.

Ukusetshenziswa kweziqondiso kuye kwanda kakhulu. Ngokuvamile abameli baye bakuthola kulula ukwenza ngendlela ehlukile kunokulawula isishayabhuqe soMkhandlu. Nakuba inani leziyalo zomphathi kumongameli ngamunye selehla kusukela i-New Deal (FDR ikhiphe 3 721 eminyakeni engu-12), izinga nencazelo yemithetho yanamuhla ikhulisiwe. I-Congregational Review Act ivumela ukumiswa kwemithetho yenhlangano nge-ocester eningi elula nosayinwa ngumongameli, kodwa ayivamile ukusetshenziswa ngaphandle kokushintsha kwendlela yokuphatha. Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-Congresss iye yanika igunya elikhulu lokuhlela izinhlangano zezeluleko, i-"accodentine."[FLFFON] [FON] [12], i-Chron [FLF] [194] imfundiso (19984]) idinga izincazelo enengqondo yezimiso zemithetho.[5][12][12][12]

INkantolo Ephakeme Ka - Arbiter

[INkantolo Ephakeme isebenza njengempepho yokugcina ekuhlukaneni kwezingxabano zamandla, nakuba indima yayo ivele. Ngaphezu kwe Marbury ne[FLT]] intsha[[[FLT]], iNkantolo yeNkantolo [[FFLT]] [[FFFF3]], yanquma [[FFFFFF:6]] [ukuthi] [izingamandla], i-i-Chaparn v[[FFFF].[acessss, igcustom] iyazi igcut'.[alls greeggggs , igcunt' izigaba zeNt] iNkakhulu leNkathi [[19][19] iNkcul] (ikhulu lamakhulu]) iNkakhulu] [inkulu iNkakhulu lamaZwe Lase.[aseyamu: [iful] [inde]) igogogogogogogogogo

Impikiswano ngobukhulu belungelo lokulawula iyaqhubeka. Trump v. [20], iNkantolo yalahla uMongameli Trumps yazisholo ukuthi ugonyelwe ngokuphelele ubugebengu obungaphansi kwe-ogrand poenas, kuyilapho [ku- Trump v. Thompson[[FLT]] [[FLTY:3] [201], yayeka ukuvimbela izinqolobane zeSiqikili ukuba ziphendulele amarekhodi ziye eKomitini yeNdluwale kaJanuwari ka-6. Lezi zenzakalo ziqokomisa ukuhosholo oluqhubekayo lwe-dock-ofy phakathi kokubona, ukulandisa, ukulandisa, nesidingo sokufihla imfihlombe egatsheni elikhulu.

Isiphetho: Ukucindezeleka Okukhuthazelelayo

Ukuziphendukela kwendlela yokuhlola nokulinganisela emlandweni waseMelika kwembula isimiso esinamandla, esiphikiswayo esingakaze sihlale njalo. Isizukulwane ngasinye siye sachaza kabusha izakhiwo zomthetho-sisekelo ngokusabela ezinkingeni, ekushintsheni kwezobuchwepheshe, nasekushintsheni kwemifelandawo yezombangazwe. Abahleli babelindele lokhu kuvumelana; baklama isimiso esiphilayo esingasivumelanisa nokugcinwa kwesimiso esiyisisekelo sokuthi amandla kumelwe alwe namandla. Isimiso siye sasinda ezimpini, ukuwohloka kwezomnotho, ukuwohloka, nokwanda kwezwe lokuphatha, kodwa amandla enkathini yanamuhla yenkathini ye-$hyper - partarian, i-precialtial, kanye nokubekwa kwemithetho ye-judiary.

Okungaguquguquki yizingxabano eziyisisekelo: igatsha ngalinye linesisusa esizithakazelelayo sokwandisa igunya lalo, futhi ukulondoloza ukulinganisela kudinga ukuqapha njalo kuwo womathathu amagatsha nakuwo nakuwo wonke amakhaya. Impumelelo yamasesha nokulinganisa ekugcineni ixhomeke ekubophekeni okuhlangene kwemithetho-sisekelo kanye nokuzimisela kwegatsha ngalinye ukumelana nokugxambukela lapho ukuhlonipha izimbulunga ezingokomthetho zezinye. Njengoba isizwe sibhekene nezinselele zokuhlola isayensi yezinto, ukusongela kwezenhlalakahle yembulunga yonke, kanye nokuncintisana kwezindawo zasekhaya, impumelelo iyaqhubeka ikhona. Ukuthi izohlala iqinile yini ukuze kuvinjelwe noma yiliphi igatsha ekulawuleni uhulumeni womthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-Melika.