Ukuqonda Ingozi Ephindwe Kabili: Izivikelo Zekhora Nemisuka Yomthetho - sisekelo

Ukwenqatshelwa kwengozi ephindwe kabili kungenye yezindlela zokuvikela ezindala kakhulu neziyisisekelo kakhulu kubantu ababhekene namandla ezwe. E-United States, kuhlanganiswe esiGuqulweni sesihlanu soMthetho-sisekelo, esithi akekho umuntu “ozobekwa ngaphansi kwecala elifanayo ukuze abekwe engozini yokuphila noma isitho.” Lesi simiso asihlukile eMelika; isivikelo esifanayo sikhona ngaphansi kwamasiko avamile, i- i-Eupanon Convention on Human Rights[, kanye nezimiso eziningi zomthetho wesizwe emhlabeni wonke.

Injongo eyinhloko yokufa futhi kube yiyo ukuvimbela uhulumeni ukuba amangalele umuntu ngokuphindaphindiwe ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo, kanjalo agweme ukuhlukunyezwa okukhulu, ukulimala okungokomzwelo nokungokwezimali kokulingwa okuphindaphindiwe, kanye nengozi yokuba umshushisi aqhubeke ezama kuze kutholakale isiqinisekiso. Isivikelo uma ijaji se-panel futhi lifunwe sifunwe (noma lapho ufakazi wokuqala efungela ukuqulwa kwecala ebhentshini) futhi aqhubeke kuze kube yilapho kungena isahlulelo sokugcina sokulahlwa noma ukuvunyelwa. Uma nje izingozi nesinqumo sike sabekwa, ngokuvamile isifundazwe siyavinjelwa ukuba singamnqandiseli ummangalelwa icala elifanayo.

I - jeoparding Ihlanganiswa Nini?

Emacaleni obugebengu, izingozi zinamathela lapho icala liqala. Amajaji amacala, yilapho ijaji lifungela khona. Amajaji ashaya indiva, izingozi zinamathela lapho ufakazi wokuqala efukwa. Lokhu kubucayi ngoba uma icala liphela ngaphambi kwesinqumo, ngokwesibonelo, ngenxa yecala elibi elinikezwa ngaphandle kwemvume yommangalelwa, ummangalelwa angaphinde aqulwe ngaphansi kwezimo ezilinganiselwe, njengasemqoka okusobala (umk., ijaji elilengiswe phambi kwecala noma ukuziphatha okubi okungathi sína okungenakuphulukiswa).

“ Ukucasha”

Ukunquma ukuthi yini ehlanganisa “icala” ngokuvamile liyimsuka wempicabadala. Ngaphansi kovivinyo lweBlockburger (kusukela ku [FLT]]] [FLT]]] i-stimer v. United States[[[FLT]], 1932]), amacala amabili athathwa njengafanayo uma ngalinye lingadingi ubufakazi bengxenye engabudingi. Uma umthetho ngamunye ufuna ubufakazi beqiniso elihlukile, amacala ayahluka futhi awabi nangozi ehlukene kanye kanye kanye kanye uma evela esenzweni esifanayo.

Okuhlukile Ekuvikeleni Ingozi Kabili

Nakuba ingozi ephindwe kabili iyisivikelo esiqinile, kukhona okuvelayo okuningana okumisiwe okumelwe abashushisi neseluleko sokuzivikela bakuqonde, ikakhulukazi lapho kubekwa isigwebo esiyinkimbinkimbi.

Imfundiso Yobukhosi Obubodwa

Enye yezindlela ezivelele kakhulu imfundiso yobukhosi obubili. Ngaphansi kwalomthetho, ababusi abahlukene (umz., uhulumeni nohulumeni kahulumeni, noma amazwe amabili ahlukene) bangamangalela ummangalelwa ngamunye ngokuziphatha okufanayo ngaphandle kokwephula izingozi eziphindwe kabili. Ngokwesibonelo, ngemva kokuba izikhulu ezihilelekile ekubulaweni kukaGeorge Floyd zakhululwa ekubulaleni kukahulumeni, abashushisi bamazwe balethe amalungelo omphakathi ahlukene. INkantolo ephakeme isekela lemfundiso ngokungaguquki, muva nje [FLT]] ].[2][12] [20] [FLT] [20] [20] [20] [20] [20] [20LT], iqinisekisa ukuthi ukungenze izibambi ezimbaxa ezihlukene ngezindlela ezihlukene].

Ukuphinde Uxazululwe Ngemva Kokuqulwa Kwezimo

Uma umahluleli ememezela icala elingalungile ngaphandle kwemvume yommangalelwa, ummangalelwa angaphinde aquliswe uma “kwakukhona isidingo” secala elingafanele. Isibonelo esivamile yijaji elilengayo (_lapho ijaji lingenakukwazi ukufinyelela isinqumo esihlangene. Ezimweni ezinjalo, ummangalelwa angase aphinde aqulwe ngenxa yokuthi ukuhluleka ukufinyelela isinqumo kubhekwa njengokudingekile. Nokho, uma umshushisi ebangele ngamabomu ukucunula ummangalelwa noma ukuzuza inzuzo yeqhinga, inkantolo ingavinjelwa futhi ngaphansi ‘ kokholo olubi” oluqashelwe ngokungafaniyo.[FLT:][FLT][FLT]][FLT:][FLT][2]S][FLT][3][12][6][6]]

Ukuphinde Utholakale Ngemva Kokukhanga Okuphumelelayo

Uma ummangalelwa edlulisa isiqinisekiso futhi ephumelela ekunqobeni ukuqulwa kwecala elisha, ingozi ephindwe kabili ngokuvamile ayimnqandi ummangalelwa ngoba ubhekwa njengoye wathola “ukhuseleko” ngokufuna ukubukeza. Nokho, kunomkhawulo obucayi: uma inkantolo echazayo ithola ukuthi ubufakazi abunele ukusekela ukuqulwa kwecala, kungoko akukho mcabango onengqondo weqiniso ongase athole icala ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo. Lokhu kuhlukanisa phakathi kokubekwa okusekelwe ephutheni elisobala kanye nokukhonzwa kwe-usuifi kubaluleke kakhulu ekudluliseni.

Ukuhluka Kwabantu Abangohulumeni Nesigebengu

Ingozi ephindwe kabili ivikela kuphela ekuqulweni kwecala eliphindaphindiwe. [[FLT: 1] ukumangalelwa komphakathi. Izijeziso, njengezenzo zokulahlekelwa, ukulahlwa kwecala, noma ukumangalelwa ngokulimaza, azivinjelwa ngisho noma zivela ekuziphatheni okufanayo okwakuyicala lobugebengu. Kodwa iNkantolo Ephakeme ibambe ukuthi isijeziso sesizwe singaba sesishaya ngenjongo nangomphumela kangangokuthi sikhandleka esibangela “ukukhubazeka” ngezinjongo eziphindwe kabili, njengoba kuboniswe [FLT]] .[3] i-halper [FLT:] [5] [9] [9] [9] [iinani elilungisiwe] [i-FLT] [5] [5]

Ukuguquguquka Okuyinkimbinkimbi: Izinhlobo Nezinselele

Ukuhlaziywa okuyinkimbinkimbi kuhlanganisa izenzakalo eziningi ezihilela amaqembu amaningi, izinkulumo eziningi, izindaba eziyiqiniso nezingokomthetho eziyinkimbinkimbi, futhi ngokuvamile ezithatha isikhathi eside ukuqulwa kwecala nokuqulwa kwecala. Ukuqonda ingozi ephindwe kabili kulomongo kudinga ukuqonda indlela ukuba yinkimbinkimbi okungandisa ngayo izingozi kubamangalelwa.

Ukukhishwa kwamabala amaningi (MDL)

I-MDL iyinqubo esetshenziswa ezinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuhlanganisa amacala amaningi abekwe ezifundeni ezihlukahlukene ahlanganyela imibuzo efanayo yeqiniso. Nakuba i-MDL ngokuyinhloko iyinqubo yomphakathi, izakhi zobugebengu ngezinye izikhathi zilandelana ngezindlela ezithile, ngokwesibonelo, emacaleni okukhwabanisa amakhulu lapho kokubili izenzo zobugebengu nezomphakathi zikhona. Ukuba khona kwezenzakalo ezifanayo kuphakamisa imibuzo emayelana nezingozi eziphindwe kabili uma amacala obugebengu ebekwa ngemva kokulahlwa kwangaphambili noma ukuqulwa icala ngenxa yecala eliyikhonziwa kakhulu. Imfundiso ehlangene ewumbuso ibaluleke kakhulu ku-MDL ehilela kokubili ukumangalelwa kwezwe nohulumeni.

Izenzo Zesigaba Zihambisana Nokweqisa Kwesigebengu

Izenzo zesigaba esikhulu, njengalezo ezibangelwa ukukhwabanisa kokungaqiniseki, imikhiqizo engalungile, noma izinhlekelele zendawo ezungezile, ngokuvamile zihlanganisa kokubili ukuqashelwa kwesizwe nobugebengu. Abalweli bangase babhekane nemiphumela ekhubazekayo yezenhlalakahle kanye namacala obugebengu. Ukwehlelwa kabili akusivimbeli isenzo somphakathi, kodwa iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sokuvikela ekuzinqandeni sihlala siyinto ekhathazayo: Abamangalelwa abanakuphoqeleka ukuba bafakaze ekumangalelweni komphakathi uma ubufakazi babo bungasetshenziswa kamuva ecaleni lobugebengu. Ukubambisana okungacunulwa phakathi kwamaqembu omphakathi nezokuzivikela kobugebengu kugxeka.

I - RICO Nokuquliswa Kwamacala

I-Racketeer Ifropy and Hood Organizations Act (RICO) iyithuluzi elinamandla elivame ukwenza ukuhlaziywa okuyinkimbinkimbi. Inqubo eyodwa yomsebenzi wokuphanga ingabangela ukumangalelwa kwabamangalelwa abaningi ngamazinga ahlukene okuhileleka, kanye nokusho kwe-pal Ricoer kwamaqembu azimele. Imibuzo ephindwe kabili ingavela lapho ukumangalelwa okulandelanayo kubhekene nenqubo efanayo kodwa igama lenqhinga elihlukile. Izinkantolo ngokuvamile zisebenzisa [[[FLT:] querburger [ ukuhlolwa ngesisekelo se-aglogint, okungaholela ekubeni kuxazululwe ngokuyinkimbinkimbi ebuhlotsheni obuphakathi.

Amalungelo Angokomthetho Abavikeli Emacala Esigebengu Esiyinkimbinkimbi

Abavikeli ababhekene nempi eyinkimbinkimbi (hhayi ukuthi basemacaleni amhlophe, ahlelwe, noma emacaleni okuvikela esizwe) bajabulela uchungechunge lwamalungelo omthetho - sisekelo nomthetho avivinyeka kakhulu lapho kuxoxwa ngezenzakalo eziningi.

Isivikelo Engozini Ephindwe Kabili

Njengoba kuxoxwe, ibhande lezingozi ezimbili liwuhlu lokuqala lokuvikela ekumangalelweni okuphindaphindwayo. Uma kucatshangelwa ngokuyinkimbinkimbi, iseluleko sokuvikela kumelwe siqaphelisise nganoma yimuphi ummangalelwa olandelanayo ongaphula lesi sigwebo. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukuhlola ukuthi amacala amasha asekelwe ekuziphatheni okufanayo noma ukuthi uhulumeni uzama ukumangalela ngaphansi komthetho ohlukile ngemva kokulahlwa ngokusemthethweni. Ngokwesibonelo, uma ummangalelwa ekhululwa owenziwa uzungu lokukhwabanisa ngocingo, uhulumeni ngeke ambeke icala ummangalelwa ofanayo ngenkohliso yocingo esekelwe ezenzweni ezifanayo ngaphandle kokuba ukukhwaba ngocingo kudinga esinye isiciso sokumangalelwa okunga okungamelwe kunikezwe enkantolo.

Ukuqulwa Kwecala Okusheshayo Nokusobala

ISichibiyelo seSithandathu siqinisekisa ukuqulwa kwecala elisheshayo nelinomphakathi. Ezimweni eziyinkimbinkimbi, ukulibala kuvamile ngenxa yokuthola okukhulu, ukuthatha izinyathelo zomthetho, nokubambisana kwamaqembu amaningi. INkantolo Ephakeme [FLT][1] Barker v. Wingo[FLT][FLD][2][1972] [77] yasungula ukuhlola okulinganiselayo uma kucatshangelwa ubude bokulibala, isizathu sokulibala, ukukhomba kwecala, nobandlululo kummangalelwa. Isivikelo kumelwe sivikele lokhu kwesokudla, ikakhulukazi uma uhulumeni efuna inzuzo ewusizo.

Isivikelo Ekuzichayeni

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu esimelene nokuzixazulula singesona isici esinzima kakhulu ekuchaseni okuyinkimbinkimbi lapho izenzakalo eziningi zikhona. Abavikeli ezicaleni zobugebengu abanakuphoqelelwa ukuba bafakazele. Nokho, ekwahluleleni komphakathi noma ekuqulweni kwezindaba ezisemthethweni, bangase bakhethe: banxuse ukuveza izimpawu ezibuhlungu zesihlanu nezingozi ekuququzelweni komphakathi, noma bafaka izingozi ekuchayekeni kobugebengu. Izinkantolo ziye zathi ukuchayeka okungathandekiyo kungavezwa ezicabeni zomphakathi ngenxa yokwenqaba kweqembu ukunikeza ubufakazi, okufaka ukucindezela okukhulu kwabamangalelwa. Ukusetshenziswa kweziqondiso zokuvikelwa kwemithetho nokucophelela kwezehlolwa kwecala kungasiza ekunciphiseni lezi zingozi.

Ilungelo Leseluleko Nosizo Oluphumelelayo

Ezimweni eziyinkimbinkimbi, ilungelo lokululeka ngaphansi kweSiqendu seSithandathu seSichibiyelo lihlanganisa ilungelo lokumelela izimpi ezikhululekile. Uma ummeli ovikelayo emelela abamangalelwa abaningi ngesikhathi esisodwa ecaleni lozungu, izingxabano ezingenzeka zesithakazelo zingavela. Inkantolo kumelwe iqhube i-Faretta[[ ukuzwa (kusukela [ku-[FLT:]]] [FLT]][FLT]]][3]] i-Morettavv v., 1975]] ukuqinisekisa ukuthi ummangalelwa ngamunye wazi futhi ukhipha ilungelo lokweluleka. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukunikeza usizo oluphumelelayo kusho ukuthi iseluleko kumelwe sihlole ukulahlekelwa okuphindwe kabili, izindaba eziyinkimbinkimbi, ukubonakala, ukukhomba okunokwenzeka, nokunokwenzeka kokumangalelwa noma ukukhohliswa.

Ilungelo Lokuthola Nenqubo Efanele

I-ligion eyinkimbinkimbi ihilela ukutholwa okukhulu kwezincwadi, izigidigidi zemininingwane ye-tel, nofakazi abaningi. Isibopho sikahulumeni sokuveza ubufakazi bokuziphendulela ngaphansi [FLT][1] Brady v. Maryland[[FLT][[1963] [iii-tebytes] ifuna kakhulu kulezi zindaba. Iseluleko sesivikelo kumelwe siqinisekise ukuthi uhulumeni unikeza zonke izinto eziwusizo ekuvikeleni, kuhlanganise nokwaziswa okungasetshenziselwa ukunikeza ofakazi bakahulumeni abafaka uhulumeni noma ukusekela izingozi ezimbili. Ukwehluleka ukuveza kungaholela ekubopheni imiyalo, ukuquluko, noma ngisho nokuxoshwa.

Ubunzima Beqhinga Elingokomthetho Ekuhlakanipheni Okuyinkimbinkimbi

Ukuyiqonda kahle izingozi eziphindwe kabili nezindlela ezihlobene nomthetho - sisekelo kubalulekile ekuklameni amasu aphumelelayo angokomthetho ezicabeni eziyinkimbinkimbi.

Iseluleko Sokuvikela

  • I-Prefdifidiation of Workings: Lapho igcinwa, iseluleko sokuvikela kufanele sihlaziye ngokushesha ukuthi ikhona yini noma ikuphi ukumangalelwa kwangaphambili ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo noma okufanayo. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukubukeza izakhiwo ze-stamente nombuso, kanye nezindaba zangaphandle ezingase zibangele ingozi ephindwe kabili ngaphansi kwesivumelwano noma umthetho ovamile.
  • Ukukhipha i-Motion ku-operard Grounds Ekabili: Uma ukusola okulandelanayo kwephula ukhiye wengozi kabili, ukunyakaza kwangaphambi kohlelo kufanelekile. Ngezinye izikhathi ukuthatha isinyathelo okunjalo kunganxuswa ngokushesha ngaphansi kwemfundiso yokuhlela, njengoba kuqinisekiswe ku [FLT]] Abney v. United States] [12]
  • [ Ukusetshenziswa kwe-everdance: Ezindabeni eziningi, kungadingeka ukunquma ukuze kuvikelwe ummangalelwa ekubeni abe nobandlululo ngobufakazi kuphela kunoma i-conendidant. Ukusebenzisa i-severnce kungasiza futhi ekuhlukaniseni izimpikiswano eziphindwe kabili ezisebenza ngokukhethekile kommangalelwa.
  • Ukungangeni kwe-panelles Proceedings:[ Uma amacala omphakathi nawobugebengu evumelana, iseluleko kufanele sicabangele ukufuna ukugcinwa kwecala lomphakathi elilindele isinqumo secala lobugebengu ukuze kugwenywe izinkinga zokuziphindisela. Izinkantolo zinganikeza ukuhlala ukuze kuvikelwe amalungelo eSichibiyelo sesihlanu, nakuba indinganiso ihluka ngokwamandla.
  • P ugcine iRecord: Konke ukuphikisa okuhlobene nomonakalo ophindwe kabili kumelwe kuphakanyiswe ngesikhathi esifike ngesikhathi lapho kuqulwa icala. Ukwehluleka ukwenza into kungaphumela ekufakeni isikhalazo. Iseluleko futhi kufanele sicele umyalo othile uma uhulumeni ethembele ebufakazini obuvela kumshushisi ongaphambili ongasikisela ukwephula.

Kumacala

  • Ukuvumelana ne-Plea Agreements: ezimweni eziyinkimbinkimbi ezihilela izivumelwano zokubambisana, abashushisi kumelwe baqinisekise ukuthi isivumelwano sicacisa ngokucacile izinga lokuzivikela nokungangeni kwezingozi ezimbili. Ulimi lwe-Vague lungaholela ekuhlawuliseni eminyakeni ethile kamuva.
  • [ Izinqumo ezicatshangelwe ngokujezisa: Ukugwema izinselele eziphindwe kabili, abashushisi kufanele basole wonke amacala aziwayo avela ekuthengiseni okukodwa okuvela ekwahluleleni okukodwa, noma bathethelele ngokucacile ukumangalelwa okuhlukene okusekelwe ezingeni elihlukile noma ezibusweni ezihlukile.
  • Sebenzisa i-Processings Eziningi noma e-Adminsion: Uma kungenzeka, ukuququzelela ukumangalelwa kukahulumeni nombuso okungavela ngokwengxenye kanye nemvume yommangalelwa kunganciphisa ukubekwa indinganiso. Nokho, imfundiso ehlangene inikeza abashushisi ukuba balethe izikhalo ezihlukene ngisho ngaphandle kwemvume.
  • Ihlola isiphetho sokulahlwa komthetho: Uma ummangalelwa esekhululiwe, uhulumeni akanakunxusa ukuthi ummangalelwa athethelelwe noma aphinde adluliswe, ngisho noma ukunxenxelwa kwakusekelwe ezinqumweni ezingalungile zomthetho. Inkantolo Ephakeme [FLT][FLT]] United States v. Scott[[FLT]] [18]) yacacisa ukuthi ukudluliswa kuvunyelwe kuphela uma ukunyakaziswa kommangalelwa kuveza imiphumela yokuhamba kommangalelwa okungekhona kwesinqumo sokugcina sentshontsha.

Izibonelo Zomthetho Nezindlela Eziwusizo Zokusebenza

Izenzakalo eziningana eziphawulekayo zibonisa indlela izikhali eziyingozi eziphindeke kabili eziphumelela ngayo ekuhlaseleni okuyinkimbinkimbi.

United States v.Felix[[FLT] [1992]

Felix, iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhuluma ngokuthi ummangalelwa angamangalelwa yini ngecala elingaphansi lezidakamizwa ngemva kokuboshwa ngenxa yozungu oluhilela ukuhweba ngezidakamizwa ezifanayo. INkantolo yathi ngenxa yecala elincinci (umk., ehlose ukwaba) nozungu luyicala elihlukile ngaphansi kwecala le- quetburger] `uzungu ludinga isivumelwano, kanti icala elingaphansi kwecala elithathelwe indawo alizange liphindeke kabili isigwebo sesibili. Lokhu kubonisa ukubaluleka kokuhlola izici ezithile zecala ngalinye.

Grady v. Corbin (1990) kanye nokudlula kwayo

, iNkantolo yathi ingozi ephindwe kabili ingavimbela ukuqulwa kwecala okulandelayo uma uhulumeni kungadingeka aqinisekise ukuziphatha okuwumthetho owenziwe ummangalelwa kakade. Nokho, ukuthi “ukuziphatha okufanayo” kwabekwa phansi [ [[FLT]] [FLT]] United States v. Dixon [[FLT:] [1993]], okwabuyisela ukuqina i-backburg [[FLT]] izici ezisekelwe emfanekisweni. Abameli kufanele baqaphele ukuthi inkolelo engokwezinkantolo ezihlangeneyo]

Uhlelo lokusebenza kwiSiphakamiso-scrolet White-Collar

Ezindabeni zokukhwabanisa eziphezulu ezingezokukhwabanisa ezinjengamachashaza abaphathi be-Entron, uhulumeni wavame ukumangalela izinkolelo-mbono eziningi zokukhwabanisa (ukukhwabanisa, ukukhwabanisa ngocingo, ukuhweba ngaphakathi) ezisekelwe eqenjini elifanayo lentengiselwano. Abameli bezentengiselwano baphakamisa ngokuphindaphindiwe izingozi eziphindwe kabili, kodwa izinkantolo zasebenza njalo [ starburger[ futhi zathola izici ezihlukene. Ukuthatha: ngokwemali eyinkimbinkimbi, abashushicileli banesilinganiso esikhulu sokumangalela ngaphandle kokweqisa okuphindwe kabili, uma isilinganiso ngasinye siqukethe isilinganiso esiyingqayizivele.

Isiphetho: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Njalo Kokusebenzisa Ingozi Ekabili Ezimweni Eziyinkimbinkimbi

Inombolo yezingozi ezimbili ilokhu iyisivikelo esiqinile kubamangalelwa, mhlawumbe ikakhulukazi kulokhu kubekwa kwemithetho eyinkimbinkimbi. Nakuba kuhlukile njengokubusa okumbaxambili nokungaxazululwa ngemva kokuhlola noma ukudluliswa kwesicelo ngemva kokuhlola izenzakalo eziningi, isimiso esiyisisekelo siyaqhubeka: kungabikho muntu okufanele abhekane namandla anamandla anamandla adlulayo ombuso kangaphanye kanye.

Kubameli abavikelayo, ukwazi ukuhlukanisa ingozi ephindwe kabili kubalulekile ekuvikeleni amakhasimende ekushushisweni ngokuxhashazwa nasekwanyaniseni ukulunga kwayo yonke inqubo yokwahlulela. Kubashushisi, ukuqonda lemingcele kuyasiza ekugwemeni ukuguqulwa okubizayo futhi kuqinisekise ukuthi amacala abekwe kahle kusukela ekuqaleni. Futhi kumthetho njengeqembu eliphelele, lengozi ephindwe kabili isebenza njengendlela yokuhlola ukukhohliswa kukahulumeni, ilondoloza isimiso sokuthi isahlulelo sokugcina sincishiwe noma ukukholwa kufanele kuhlolwe.

Njengoba ukuhlaziywa kukhula kuyinkimbinkimbi, nezenzakalo zikahulumeni ezihlangene, nombuso, nezizwe zonke, isidingo sokucaca engozini ephindwe kabili asikaze sibe sikhulu. Abaholi abahlala benolwazi ngomthetho ochaza izindaba, ukuhlangana kwababusi abaningi, nokusetshenziswa kwezenzo zobugebengu nomthetho kuyoba ngcono kakhulu ukusekela amalungelo abamangalelwa nobuqotho besimiso sobulungisa.