Ukuqalisa Ukuba Nemizimba Emibili

Isimiso sengozi ephindwe kabili siyisisekelo senqubo yobugebengu emagatsheni omthetho avamile, edume kakhulu esiGuqulweni sesihlanu se-United States soMthetho-sisekelo: “Nanoma ubani ngeke abekwe engozini yokuphila noma ukubekwa esigabeni.” Ngaphakathi, lemfundiso ivimbela uhulumeni ukuba umangalele umuntu kaningi ngesenzo esifanayo ngemva kwecala elibi noma ukuqiniseka, futhi ivimbela isijeziso esiphindaphindiwe sobugebengu obufanayo. Kodwa umthetho umelene nokusetshenziswa kobufakazi obuphelele ezinkantolo eziningi ezihlukahlukene, ukubekwa kwezinsolo ezihlukahlukene, noma ukubekwa kwemibuzo eqophelweni ezihlukene, noma ukubuzwa okuyinkimbinkimbi mayelana nendawo lapho umngcele oyingozi ungamangalelwa khona kanye nendlela isimo esikhona esikhona ngaphambi kokuba sisebenzise ngayo ukuqulwa okusha.

Ukuqonda lezizici kubaluleke kakhulu kubameli abavikelayo, abashushisi, kanye namajaji ngokufanayo. Ukuhlangana kwezindawo ezivikelayo eziphindwe kabili nobufakazi kuhilela hhayi nje imfundiso yomthetho-sisekelo kuphela kodwa futhi nencazelo engokomthetho, umthetho wokuhlola i-estoppel, kanye namaqiniso asebenzayo okuhlola okuningi kokulahla. Lesi sihloko sihlola ukuhlelwa komthetho okulawula izingozi eziphindwe kabili, ukuhluka okuqashelwayo okuvumela ubufakazi ukuba buhlangane noma busetshenziswe, kanye nezibonelo eziyinhloko zalokho okusebenza namuhla.

Isisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Nenjongo

Izingozi ezimbili aziwona nje umthetho wobuchwepheshe; uhlanganisa ukulunga okuyisisekelo. Abalawuli boMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. baqaphela ukuthi amandla kambusi okuletha ukuqulwa kwamacala aphindaphindiwe angasetshenziselwa ukuhlukumeza, ukukhandleka, futhi ekugcineni abeke isigwebo kumuntu ongenacala. Ngokuhlola ngemva kwesinqumo sokugcina, isimiso sivikela abantu emthwalweni ongokomzwelo nowezimali ongapheli, silondoloza ukugcina isahlulelo, futhi sivimbela uhulumeni ukuba “uhlabe okwesibili e - apula” uma uhluleka ukufakazela icala lakhe lokuqala.

Inkantolo iqinisekisa ngokuphindaphindiwe ukuthi izingozi eziphindwe kabili zikhona lapho ijaji libekwa futhi lifukwa, noma lapho ufakazi wokuqala efushanisiwe ekuhlolweni kwebhentshi. Uma ikhona ingozi, ummangalelwa angazanywa kanye ngecala elifanayo. Nokho, incazelo yesithi “lolo cala” ibiyindaba yokucushwa okukhulu. i-imburger uvivinyo [, olusuka ku-[FLT], oluthathwe ku-[FLT:] i-Interburg. [indlela yokukhomba] ingeniswa kanye kanye.[FLT] v. United States[FLD:] [5] [1932]), ibuza ukuthi iphutha ngalinye lidinga ubufakazi besinye isiciso sinye. Uma iziphakaxa ezidizo ezimbili zidinga ukungeniswa, izinjongo ezifanayo, uma zidinga izinjongo ezihlukene, uma zikhona, uma zikhona, uma zikhona, futhi zicatshangelwa kanye kanye. Uma zicatshangelwa.

Eziyingqayizivele Egatsheni Elimbaxa - mbili Lengozi

Nakuba ingozi ephindwe kabili iyisihlangu esinamandla, ihlukile kakhulu. Lokhu kushiyana kwakha indawo engokomthetho lapho ubufakazi obuvela ekuqulweni kwecala kwangaphambili bungasetshenziswa khona ngokulandela ngaphandle kokwephula uMthetho-sisekelo. Ukuqonda umehluko ngamunye kubalulekile ukuhlola ukuthi ungabudlulisa nini futhi kanjani ubufakazi kusuka kwesinye icala kuya kwesinye.

Imfundiso Yababusi Abahlukene

Okuphawuleka kakhulu imfundiso ehlukanisayo ewububusi , ngezinye izikhathi ebizwa ngokuthi isimiso sokubusa okumbaxambili. Ngaphansi kwalomthetho, umuntu angaqulwa yizwe nohulumeni wokuziphatha okufanayo kobugebengu ngoba ngamunye unegunya elihlukile elinemithetho yakhe siqu nezithakazelo. Ngenxa yokuthi ingozi ephindwe kabili ibopha ukuqulwa kwesibili yinkosi efanayo, ubufakazi obuthola ekuqulweni kwecala lombuso bungasetshenziswa ekuqulweni kwecala likahulumeni (noma ukubekwa ngokwenzuzo) ngaphandle kokwephula umthetho.

Ngokwesibonelo, uma ummangalelwa ekhululiwe ekuphangeni enkantolo kahulumeni, uhulumeni kahulumeni ungaqhubeka emangalela ummangalelwa ofanayo ngokuphanga ehlomile uma ubugebengu buphinde buphule umthetho kahulumeni (umz., buye baqala embonini kahulumeni ovikelwe kwesokudla). Bonke ubufakazi obasungulwa ekuqulweni kwecala (imibiko), ubufakazi, ukuhlaziywa kweDNAN, i-DNAN, i-agnomet , uma ihlangana nemithetho esobala. INkantolo Ephakeme yaqinisekisa lemfundiso v. United States [2010] [2010] [2010], iphethe ukuthi ubukhosi obubodwa buhlala buwumthetho omuhle. Umbono waphawula ukuthi ukukhishwa kwecala okuphindwe kabili kubhekisela “emithethweni”“ ngemithetho ekhonzweni. ”

Ukuphinde Uxazululwe Ngemva Kokuqulwa Kwezimo

Okunye okungamukeleki kuvela uma icala liphela enkantolo engalungile. Uma abahluleli behluleka ukufinyelela isinqumo (ijaji elilengisiwe), umshushisi angamphikisa ummangalelwa kumacala afanayo. Kulelocala lesibili, bonke ubufakazi bokuqulwa kokuqala bungaqondakali, bulandela imithetho esobala. Ngokufanayo, uma ikomiti engafanele ikhishwa ngenxa yesidingo esisobala − esinjengeseqeshana elifile, iphutha eliyindida, noma icala elingafanele lommangalelwa. Uhulumeni ungalihlola icala lokuqala. Ubufakazi obuvela ekuqulweni kokuqala okunqunyiweyo bungatholakalangabekwangaso ngenxa yesahlulelo sokugcina se-avrected noma ukuqiniseka okungagunyazwanga.

Umngcele oyisihluthulelo uwukuthi ukuqulwa kwecala okungalungile kumelwe kunikezwe ngenxa yezizathu ezingalingani nokufinyelela ukufinyelela. Uma umshushisi ebangela ukumangalelwa ngenhloso ukuba kuzuze inzuzo, izingozi eziphindwe kabili zingavala inqubo yokuphinde ihlolwe. Lokhu kwakuwukubamba Oregon v. Kennedy [19982], okubeka ibhande eliphezulu: ummangalelwa kumelwe abonise ukuthi ummangalelwa uhlose ukushushisa ummangalelwa ukuba ahambele inkundla eyiphutha.

Ukuqiniseka Okuyisikhwama Nezikhalo Ezisasele

Uma ummangalelwa edlulisa isiqinisekiso ngokuphumelelayo, uhulumeni uvame ukuvunyelwa ukuba avumelane nommangalelwa emacala afanayo. Ukumangalelwa kuyaphikiswa, futhi icala libuyela esigabeni sokuqulwa kwecala lokuqala. Ubufakazi bamacala okuqala bungakholeki ekuqulweni okusha, ngaphansi kwesinqumo esikhona lapho kukhishwa ubufakazi obuthile. Nokho, uma ukudluliswa kwamacala ekwahlulelweni kuveza isigwebo sokulahlwa (ngoba ubufakazi babunganele ngokomthetho), izingozi eziphindwe kabili ziboshelwe futhi ubufakazi abunakusetshenziswa. INkantolo Ephakeme [FLT:] Burks v. United States[12] [17] [17])) wenziwa ngokucacile ukuthi ukulungiswa kobufakazi obunganele obunganele.

Ukubuyisela Ubufakazi Ekuqhubekeni Ngokuhlukene Kobugebengu Obuhlukahlukene

Ngisho noma umbusi oyedwa ehilelekile, ubufakazi obuvela kwelinye icala bungasetshenziswa njalo kwelinye icala uma icala lesibili lihilela icala elingalinganiyo. Ukuhlolwa kweBlockburger kunquma ukuthi amacala amabili ayafana noma ahlukile. Uma ehlukile, uhulumeni angawamangalela ngokwehlukana futhi aphinde asebenzise ubufakazi.

Ngokwesibonelo, cabangela ummangalelwa omangalelwe ngokuphanga ehlomile nangokuba nesibhamu esingekho emthethweni phakathi nokuphanga. Ngaphansi kwe-Blockburger, lokhu kuyicala elifanayo uma ukuphanga sekuhlanganisa isibhamu kakade, kodwa amagunya amaningi awabheka njengahlukene uma edinga ubufakazi besinye isici angeke siso. Uma ummangalelwa egweba ummangalelwa ohlomile kodwa ummangalelwa ophethe kamuva uqhubeka enkantolo yokuphatha isibhamu, ubufakazi obufanayo nobufakazi obuvela ekumangalelweni kwecala lokuphanga. Ummangalelwa akanakuveza izingozi eziphindwe kabili ngenxa yokuthi icala lempangobo liyicala elingohlukile, ngisho noma icala lokubulala ngezikhali liyicala elihlukile, nakuba inkantolo kamuva iqhubeka ngenxa yecala.

ICollateral Estoppel Ezimweni Zesigebengu

Umngcele obucayi ekusetshenzisweni kobufakazi futhi obenziwe ezindaweni ezihlukene ukulingwa yimfundiso ye- colteral estoppel (eyaziwa futhi ngokuthi impikiswano yangaphambi komthetho). Ngisho noma amacala amabili ahlukene, impikiswano yeqiniso eyanqunywa yijaji enkantolo engaphambili ayinqunywayo futhi inqunywe ngecala eliyikhombayo, ngoba indaba eyiqiniso inqunywe kakade enkantolo yokuqulwa icala. Ngokwesibonelo, uma ummangalelwa ekhululiwe ehliswe ngokubulala ngenxa yokuthi ummangalelwa akatholangalelwangaboshelwanga, uhulumeni ngeke amangalelwe ummangalelwa ofanayo ngenxa yenkolelo yokuthi wayengummangaleli okhokheliwe.

INkantolo Ephakeme yamisa ukusebenza kokumelanisa i-estole estole emacaleni obugebengu Ashe v. Senson (1970). Ngaleyondlela, ummangalelwa waqulwa icala lokuphanga omunye wabadlali abayisithupha bepoker, kodwa ijaji lathola ukuthi akayena omunye wabaphangi. Umbuso wabe umzama ukuphanga omunye umdlali wepoker kuleso senzakalo. Inkantolo yathi ukumangalelwa kwesibili kuvinjelwe ngenxa yokuthi umbango wesibili wawungaxazululwa. Ubufakazi obuvela ekuqulweni kokuqala abunakungasetshenziswa futhi ekuqulweni kokwesibili ukuba kuphinde kuchazwe lowombuzo.

Colleteral estopel ingaba ithuluzi elinamandla kubamangalelwa, kodwa kudinga ukuhlaziywa ngokucophelela kwesinqumo sabahluleli. Uma kungenzeki ukunquma ukuthi yimaphi amaqiniso abahluleli abawanqume ngempela, imfundiso ingase ingawasebenzisi. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ngezinye izikhathi uhulumeni angahlela izimangalo ukuze agweme ukubekwa icala ngokuzifaka icala ukuze isinqumo sokuqala singanqumi noma iliphi iqiniso elibalulekile ekumangaleleni kwesibili.

Izincwadi Eziwusizo Zokuqondisa Ubufakazi

Ukugcinwa komthetho kanye nabashushisi kuvame ukuqoqa ubufakazi obungase buvumelane nobugebengu obuningi. Amasampula e-DNA, amarekhodi ocingo, amarekhodi emali, amabhukwana emali, kanye nokuhlola kungasetshenziswa konke ekuqulweni okulandelanayo ngaphansi kwemibono ehlukene engokomthetho, uma nje ukubekwa kabili kwengozi noma ukumiswa kwe-estomple akukuvimbeli ukuqulwa komthetho kwesibili. Nokho, ukusebenzisa ubufakazi kungaphansi kwemithetho evamile yezimpawu kanye nemithetho yeketanga. Uma ubufakazi butholakele ngesiqinisekiso sokufuna esalahlwa kamuva, noma uma bebungangcoliswa ukwenziwa ngokuvinjelwa komthetho omthetho ekuqululweni kokuqala, kungagcinwa ekuqulweni kwesibili.

Ngokwesibonelo, uma ukuvuma izono okuphoqelelwe kwasekuqaleni kwasetshenziswa ukuze kutholakale ukuqiniseka okwaguqulwa kamuva, ukuvuma kungabe kulula uma impoqo ingaphulukiswa.

Izenzakalo Eziyinhloko Nethonya Lazo

Izinqumo eziningi zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zahlela imingcele yezingozi eziphindwe kabili nobufakazi futhi. Ngalé kwalezo eseziphawuliwe, United States v. Dixon [1993] liyicala eliyingqopha - mlando elicacisayo ukuthi amacala amabili ayafana yini. EDexon, iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi ukuhlolwa kwezakhi zegazi yiyodwa okuwukuphela kovivinyo lokuthola ukuthi ukwenzeka kwecala, ukwenqaba “uvivinyo olubanzi”. Lesi sinqumo sivumela abashushisi ukuba bakhiphe amacala amaningi kususwe eqenjini elilodwa lobugebengu uma nje ukumangalelwa okunye kungasho lutho olufanayo. Ngokomphumela, ubufakazi bokuhlolwa komthetho owodwa ngokuvamile bungasetshenziswa ekuhlolweni okulandelayo ekumangalelweni okuhlukile okuhambisana nokuhlolwa kwe-Blockburgburg.

Elinye icala elibalulekile yi- Hudson v. United States (1997), eyayikhuluma ngomehluko phakathi kwezijeziso zobugebengu nezezakhamuzi. INkantolo yathi ukulahlekelwa kabili akusibambi isigwebo sesibili semali ngemva kwecala lobugebengu, ngisho noma isijeziso sisekelwe ekuziphatheni okufanayo, ngoba izijeziso zomphakathi azikho “ngezona isijeziso esiphindwe kabili. Ubufakazi obuvela ecaleni lobugebengu bungasetshenziswa futhi ekuphumeleni komphakathi. Lesimiso sinemiphumela emikhulu yokulahlekelwa, ukukhokhwa, ukukhokhwa, nokunikezwa kwecala lobugebengu, futhi kufaka ubufakazi obungokomthetho ngokuvamile obuvela ezindlebeni.

Indaba ye Grady v. Corbin (1990) ekuqaleni yathatha “uvivinyo olubanzi” kodwa yathathelwa isigwebo eminyakeni emithathu kamuva Dixon[. Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo okusheshayo komthetho kuqokomisa ukubaluleka kokuhlala ukhona ngesandulela lapho uhlela indlela yokusebenzisa ubufakazi phakathi kwemilingo eminingi. Abameli kumelwe bakulungele ukubekela ubufakazi inselele kokubili izingozi eziphindiwe nezingasikhongo eziphindiwe, kuyilapho abashushishi kumele ukuba basebenzise izikhalazo zabo ukuze bagweme ukuqulwa.

Imibono Yomhlaba Wonke Nekusasa

Izimiso eziyingozi ezimbili ziyahlukahluka kakhulu ezimisweni zomthetho. E-United Kingdom, i-Criminal Justice Act 2003 yenza umehluko olinganiselwe wokuvumela ukuqulwa kwecala elingathi sína lapho “kuvela ubufakazi obusha nobuqaqekayo”, ngisho nangemva kokulahlwa. Lokhu kuwukusuka kumthetho ovamile. I-European Convention on Human Rights inqabela izingozi eziphindwe kabili ngaphansi kwemithetho ye-Protocol 7, kodwa amazwe amaningi aye aphikisana. E-United States, abukho ubufakazi obusanda kutholakala ngemva kokulahlwa kokugcina, nakuba amanye amazwe aye acabangela izinguquko zomthetho womthetho. Ukusetshenziswa kobufakazi ezicaleni ezinjalo kungabuswa ngemithetho eqondile.

Amasu esimanje e-fonsic consic, ikakhulukazi ukuhlolwa kwe-DNA, aye andisa impikiswano. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi uma ubufakazi obusha be-DNA bufakazela ngokungenakuphikiswa ukuthi inecala ngemva kokulahlwa, umbuso kufanele ukwazi ukuphinde ulungise ummangalelwa (nendlela yokusebenzisa ubufakazi obudala obuseduze nobusha). Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi ukuphela kokulahlwa kufanele kuphelele ukuze kuvikelwe inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Kuze kube manje, iNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. ayisawuqapheli ubufakazi obusha, futhi lesisigqebhezana esine sengozi singasala singumbhalo oseduze nowakwabsolulwelwelwesi ngemva kwesahlulelo sokugcina sokulahla.

Ukucatshangelwa Okufanele Kwabenzi Bokuhloniphisa

Ukuze kutholakale iseluleko sokuvikela, ukuqonda ukusetshenziswa kobufakazi kubalulekile ekwakheni icebo elibanzi lokwahlulela. Uma ikhasimende libhekene namacala kokubili enkantolo yombuso nekahulumeni, noma uma kulindelwe ukumangalelwa okuningi, iseluleko kumelwe silindele ukuthi bonke ubufakazi obuqoqwe ekuhlolweni kophenyo bungasetshenziswa kuzo zonke izikhalo. Izinyathelo ze-limine ngezinye izikhathi zingabukhipha ubufakazi obungabangela ukuba ubandlululo lungabe yize lungakhonjwa kwenye i-asmeactum ngisho noma i-avraneclel engathi ingasebenzisa, abameli kufanele baqinisekise ukuthi umbhalo ogciniwe ekuhlolweni kokuqala uveza ngokucacile lokho amaqiniso anqunyiweyo.

Abashushisi, isihluthulelo siwukuhlela ngokucophelela izikhalo zokugwema ukugadla ngezingozi eziphindwe kabili kuyilapho befaka isilinganiso sokubaluleka okusobala kokuhlola okukodwa. Ukufuna ukuqiniseka ngecala elincane kuqala, khona - ke ukusebenzisa ubufakazi obufanayo ukuze uzame ukumangalela okukhulu, kungase kungavunyelwe uma amacala ethathwa njengomthetho ofanayo ngaphansi kuka-Blockburger. Indlela engcono iwukuletha zonke izikhalo ezikhona kanye, noma ukuqinisekisa ukuthi isambazo ngasinye sinesici esihlukile. Uma amakhosi ahlukene ehilelekile, ukubambisana phakathi kombuso nohulumeni kungavumela ubufakazi obuvela kwelinye icala, kodwa ukunakekela kumelwe kuthathwe ukuze kugwenywe ukufinyelela okungase kuholele ekuthatheni ibhizinisi noma ukukhokha ezindaweni zokuvinyanisa.

Isiphetho

Ingozi ephindwe kabili ivikela abantu ekucindezelweni kokuqulwa kwecala ngokuphindaphindiwe, kodwa akusona isithiyo esiphelele sokusebenzisa ubufakazi kuzo zonke izimo. Imfundiso ehlukile, isimo esihlukile sobugebengu obuhlukene, ikhono lokuzama kabusha ngemva kokuhlola noma ukudlulisa, nemingcele yokuhlola i-emisal eglectel konke kudala izindlela ezingokomthetho kubashushisi ababuthene ukuze basebenzise ubufakazi obuphinde buxhaswe. Izinkantolo ziyaqhubeka zicwenga lemingcele ngomthetho, [[FLT:] njengoba kubonakala ku-[FLT:] [FLT:] [1]] [[FLT:]] [2] [FLT] [2] [2] [i Foct:3] [3] futhi ubufakazi obuqinile, obungubufakazi obungujule.[FLT] [FLT] [FFFF] [FF] [5] [FFFFF] [6] [5] [5] [6] [5] [5] [ilt] [ip] [ip] [ip

Ekugcineni, ukulinganisela okubangelwa ukuhlelwa yiziphepho eziphindwe kabili kuhlonipha kokubili ubuqotho benqubo yokwahlulela nelungelo lomuntu lokukhululeka ekuhlukunyezweni. Njengoba ukucwaninga kwesayensi nokuphikisa okuningi kushintsha, kanjalo futhi imibuzo ephathelene nokuthi ubufakazi bungahlanganyelwa kanjani futhi busetshenziswe futhi buphinde busetshenziswe. Kodwa umthetho oyinhloko uhlala: uma umuntu eye wazanywa ngokunembile futhi wakhishwa isahlulelo sokugcina, umbuso kumelwe uvume lowo mphumela //akenziwa ngokungasetshenziswanga. Kulawo mafasitela ayizingcingo ancane, ubufakazi obuvela esikhathini esidlule bungaphila esimweni esisha.